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The fundamental and practical distinction between coniferous and deciduous forests is useful (and was used herein), but precise, non-arbitrary "lines" are impossible when presenting and discussing forest range types in the eastern half of the continent. This is especially the case when climax or potential natural vegetation is used as the basis for forest types (ie. when cover types, or the more specific management cover types, are discussed as being more or less synonymous with permanent forest types). As discussed in detail below, the epic work of Lucy Braun (1950) is still the definitive basis for the ecological discussion and classification of those North American forests which extend from the Atlantic Coast to slightly beyond the Missouri and Mississippi River drainages. Braun (1950) included all the coniferous forests (forest types, regions, etc.)-- the generic "southeastern pine region"--as part of her one Deciduous Forest Formation.
The forest range types included in the following section include coniferous, deciduous, and mixed coniferous-deciduous forests. This is confusing but unavoidable given the nature of the vegetation and the standard understanding (the Braun interpretation) of ecological relations and classification of this forest vegetation. Most of the southeastern pine types presented are management cover types maintained silviculturally as more economically valuable coniferous forests rather than as the climax mixed hardwood-pine forest types. In other words, efforts were made to fit the Society of American Foresters (1980) cover types with the climax types of Braun (1950) and the potential natural vegetation units of Kuchler (1966).
The major forest communities or forest zones of eastern North America are broad or wide in their spatial patterns unlike the narrow zonation characteristic of the forests of western North America. The "young" mountains of the western part of the continent are taller (in fact, still getting taller) and as a result have more elevation-based zonation of vegetation than do the geologically older and more eroded (lower) eastern mountains such as the Applachians or Ozarks. So too, are the soils of the Atlantic Coast more zonal (ie. major soil units are larger or broader in spational dimension like those of the vast continental interior whereas soils of the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Slope ranges are more of the intrazonal spatial scale. See for illustration the national soil map of dominant soil orders and suborders (Soil Survey Staff, 1998).
Vankat (1979, p. 137) wrote that relief within the eastern deciduous forest "is quite variable" yet earlier Vankat (1979, p. 41) had also correctly noted that "low hills" were characteristic of much of this deciduous forest region. Again, contrast this with the extreme physiography of the Rockys or Sierra Nevada-Cascade Ranges.
The classic and still-definitive work on forests of eastern North America (approximately east of the 98th meridian) is the life's work of Dr. Lucy Barun (1950). Braun interpreted this entire vegetation as one great forest formation existing as a mosaic of forest regions which in turn were made up of community units that she labeled variously as belts, areas, districts, sections, divisions, etc.
"The Deciduous Forest Formation of eastern North America is a complex vegetation unit most conspicuously characterized by the prevalence of the deciduous habit of most of its woody constituents. This gives to it a certain uniformity of phsiognomy, with alternating summer green and winter leafless aspects. Evergreen species, both broad-leaved and needle-leaved, occur in the arboreal and shrub layers, patticularly in seral stages and in marginal and transitional areas. They are not, however, entirely lacking even in some centrally loocated climax communities" (Braun, 1950, p. 31).
"The Deciduous Forest Formation is made up of a number of climax associations differing from one another in floristic compositon, in physiogonomy, and in genesis or historical origin. While the delimitation of associations may be made on a basis of dominant species, and it is from these that the climax is named, dominants alone fo not suffice for the recognition of these units. … Although the delimitation in space of an association is difficult, if not impossible, it is entirely possible to recognize and to map forest regions which are characterized by the prevalence of specific climax types, or by mosaics of types. These regions are natural entities, generally with readily observable natural boundaries based on vegetational features. … Forest regions must not be confused with climax associations. Even though a region is named for the climax association normally developing within it, it should not be assumed that the region is coextensive with the area where that climax can develop. Each of the several climaxes, although characterizing a specific region, nevertheless occurs in other regions." (Braun, 1950, p. 33-34). Braun (1950, ps. 35-37) listed nine forest regions making up the Deciduous Forest Formation of eastern North America:
Braun (1950, ps. 11-12) interpreted these same combinations of species as forest communities at the scale (both spatial, mostly, and, also, temporal) of climax association from which, as quoted immediately above, Braun derived the names of forest regions. Braun (1950, ps. 11-12) distinguished between the association-abstract and the association-concrete, a distinction discussed in the review of the derivation of vegetation cover type from the concept of plant association. The Braun association is the association of F.E. Clements. Indeed the entire ecological paradigm on which Braun (1950, ps. 10-15) based her monographic treatment of the North American Deciduous Formation is Clementisan except allowance for and inclusion of edaphic and physiographic climaxes of Cowles, Tansley, etc. Vankat (1979, ps. 137-150) and Delcourt and Delcourt in Barbour and Billings (2000, ps. 365-378) described eastern deciduous forest vegetation under the Braun (1950) associations of the Clementsian model.
It is important to bear in mind that the Braun associations can occur in more than the one forest region bearing the name of the association (eg. the Oak-Pine Association commonly occurs and the Maple-Basswood Association infrequently occurs in parts of the Oak-Hickory Forest Region).
Several of the species combinations that delineate deciduous forest regions and associations were also used as forest cover types by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) as for example White Pine-Hemlock (SAF 22), White Pine-Northern Red Oak-Red Maple (SAF 20), Sugar Maple-Basswood (SAF 26), and Beech-Sugar Maple (SAF 60). The Society of American Foresters emphasized that it's forest cover types were "based on existing tree cover" ("… forest as they are today…") and that some types may be climax while others are "transitory" (ie. seral stages leading to another climax).
Braun (1950, p. xiii) specified: "Some of the communities for which composition is given are readily referable to 'forest cover types' as defined by the Society of American Foresters". She then added, "However, an attempt to classsify all communities as to 'cover types' would be artificial" and often impossible. Undoubtedly this was due to the differences in classification by Braun's climax basis (with seral communities clearly specified) versus the existing or present-day forest communities basis of the SAF.
The Society for Range Management (Shiflet, 1994, p. xi) also specified the criterion of "existing vegetation" and that some rangeland cover types are climax and others are seral. The author of this collection of photographs and descriptions repeatedly reminded readers of this situation, but specified that most of the rangeland and forest cover types included herein were climax vegetation. That criterion exist for forest range types of the Eastern Deciduous forest Formation with most photographs being of either old-growth or second-growth forest with climax species composition as described in the classic literature such as Braun (1950) or Shelford (1963, ps. 17-119).
The nine forest regions of Braun (1950, ps. 35-37) were retained with little modification as series in the fairly comprehensive suystem of vegetation (primarily, climax; secondly, disclimax or subclimax) used in A Classification of North American Biotic Communities by Brown et al. (1998). Their organization of the Eastern Deciduous Forest Formation was: Oak-Hickory Series, Oak-Chestnut Series, Beech-Maple Series, Oak-Pine Series, Maple-Basswood Series, and Hemlock-White Pine-Mixed Hardwood Series within the Northeastern Deciduous Forest biotic community and Mixed Mesophytic Series and Pine Series within the Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community. The Brown et al. (1998) series were included below following SAF and/or SRM cover type designations. Additional designations as for forest wetlands were shown as required.
The consistent and persistent use of the eastern deciduous forest associations of Braun (1950) by the foremost contemporary ecologists provides the beginning student of Ecology with a textbook example of the necessity of learning the fundamental concepts— and the language(s) thereof —that are the foundation of his selected field of Biology. No ecological monograph, including those of John E. Weaver or Victor E. Shelford, ever used Clementsian concepts and terminology any more consistently or with any more practical application than did Braun (1950). All three of these (and there were others besides these) patriarchal ecologists of North American vegetation left future generations with not only the seminal but also the definitive treatises of the communities to which they devoted their professional lives.
Their like, their genre of comprehensive, panaramic, descriptive, first-hand accounts of vegetation on this grand scale, will not likely appear again before icicles hang in Hell. The contemporary research world is hung up on numbers, even generated or simulated (vs. real data) numbers often for numbers-sake alone, and especially numbers of publications. This has gone beyond Lord Kelvin's admonition to "express it in numbers", (indeed Kelvin used actual numbers derived from physical experiments) to the point that quantity is everything and quality (always subsidary to quantity) itself is based on numbers. Not only is there little room for Descriptive Ecology, but there is hardly more for descriptive analysis of experiments and observations because the gold-standard of refereed publications has descended, has been perverted, to the quantitative entity of LPU (Lowest Publishable Unit). A natural length paper based on objectives of the study is split into as many LPUs as possible to extend the author's bibliography. This procedure does not allow enough results to be included in any one paper to allow a discussion of findings from a comprehensive perspective. Besides the experimental procedure (complete with lots of numbers and split-nine-ways-to-Sunday replications) is the most important part according to anonymous peer-reviewers
In an institutional culture where "Publish or Perish" has become prostituted to a realm of pot-boiler papers written from predictable-outcome, piss-ant projects the next generation of Brauns, Weavers, Shelfords are "dead meat" if they devote (ie. sacrifice) their careers to document for eternity the kind of knowledge their "takes a lifetime" research produced. Such incredible work is left to not only the fully vested or tenured but the tenured full professor of independent financial means at career's end (and then there is not enough time left to do the work). A key factor in the creative genius and amazing productivity of Frederic E.Clements was that he was able to spend most of his career working for the rich Carnegie Foundation which freed him from the routine of classroom teaching and daily chores of academia thereby enabling him the luxury of a self-proclaimed "escaped professor" (Brewer, 1988, p. 503). Alternatively, the most lasting and useful research is the province of the academic martyr to whom pursuit of knowledge or satisfaction of curiosity are of higher utility than organizational rank and its financial renumeration.
Thus the Ecology student is left with the classical works of those "giants in the earth" who reigned when knowledge was the domain of a more leisurely, honest, genteel, and collegial time and culture.
The scholar of biblical texts cannot read just the several English translations of the Holy Bible. He must also understand the native tongues of Hebrew, Arabic, or Greek in which Holy Writ was written. So too with the "scripture" of Ecology. And the language of vegetation, at least North American vegetation, is Clementsian. The serious student of vegetation must be knowledgable and conversant in this language given that so much of the all-encompassing vegetation literature was written predominately from the view of Clementsian Ecology (and vocabulary). These original, monographic works remain the basis, however distant, of current investigations or even classifications of vegetation. The basic ecological concepts in such natural resource fields as Range Management and Forestry remain Clementsian at root (eg. the Clementsian association is the basis of the forest and range cover types as used in North America).
Any who would refuse to familarize themselves with Clementsian Ecology because there are exceptions to and alternative models for some of its general, long temporal-large spatial scales traverse the terrain of ecological literature half blind. In their zeal to reform the basic vegetation paradigm to include, justifiably, the exceptions they end up "throwing the baby out with the bath water".
1. Live oak hammock (hammock is Indian for "shady place")- This is a unique land form and range vegetation type restricted to the southeastern portion of North America, especially Florida. Hammocks are characterized by being fairly level to gently rolling and higher than surrounding land. Yet they are poorly drained and fertile (soils are high in humus) with hardwood communities that are typically dominated by live oak canopy and an understory of cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto), skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus), carpetgrass (Axonopus affinis), and panicgrasses (Panicum spp.). FRES No. 16 (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). There is no Kuchler equivalent for communities this small; the Kuchler system lumped this type in with some other larger unit of which K-81 (Live Oak-Sea Oats) seemed most fitting. SRM 817 (Oak Hammocks). Mixed Hardwood Series in Floridian Evergreen (Hammock) Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Southern Coastal Plain- Central Florida Ridges and Uplands Ecoregion, 75c (Griffith et al., undated).
2. Interior of a Florida live oak hammock with tell-tale raised yet wet ground- Mid-canopy shrubs include wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera) and American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana) with sparsely scattered saw palmetto (Serenoa repens).FRES No. 16 (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). Subunit of K-81 (LiveOak-Sea Oats). SRM 817 (Oak Hammocks). Mixed Hardwood Series in Floridian Evergreen (Hammock) Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Southern Coastal Plain- Central Florida Ridges and Uplands Ecoregion, 75c (Griffith et al., undated).
Slash pine (Pinus elliottii= P. caribrea= P. heterophylla) grows--or at least under natural conditions (like pre-whiteman days)--in associateion with longleaf pine (P. palustris) with the latter growing on drier upland forest sites while slash pine commands control of more mesic habitats such as environments around ponded water (hence the other common, common name of pond pine); plus slash pine is between longleaf pine and loblolly pine (P. taeda) with regard to tolerance (Harlow et al., 1979, p. 97). For this reason these two native, southeastern, yellow pines have typically been included as the same forest ecosystem (Garrison et al., 1977, p. ps. 5-8) and same forest cover type (SAF 83; Eyre, 1980, p.s 52-53). In addition, however, slash pine occurs as a sole dominant of a subclimax cover type (SAF 84, SAF 111; Eyre, 1980. ps. 56- 58) and as the principal pine of the hardwood-pine type (SAF 85; Eyre, ps. 61-62).
With human-directed fire exclusion (ie. replacement of natural fire regimes) slash pine gradually replaces longleaf pine on the more moist habitats as well as growing as pioneering tree species on cutover forest lands much like loblolly pine (Harlow et al., 1979, p. 97).
Slash pine is a major pine of considerable commercial importance in southeastern North America, especially in Florida. Slash pine is valuable as both a commercial wood crop species in pine plantations and a dominant native tree of more natural forests. Under most such situations, there is slash pine-dominated/defined forest range that is usuable by both livestock (mostly cattle) and wildlife. As shown below, however, unless plantations of slash pine are thinned and/or aritfically pruned eventually a closed canopy forms resulting in exclusion of the previous, successional, herbaceous understorey. Under these conditions, slash pine range is transitory forest range--a fleeting forage resource--in the same manner as loblolly pine.
3. Florida flatwoods range site at climax- This is the most widespread range site in Florida. Slash pine (Pinus elliottii) upperstory with a nutritious and productive understory dominated by creeping bluestem (Andropogon stolonifer), chalky bluestem (A. capillipes), and shortspike bluestem (A. brachystachys).
Osceola County, Florida. February. FRES NO. 12 (Longleaf-Slash Pine Ecosystem). K-106 (Subtropical Pine Forest [Southern Florida]). SRM 811 (South Florida Flatwoods). Variant of Pine Series in Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Southern Coastal Plain- Eastern Florida Flatwoods Ecoregion, 75d (Griffith et al., undated).
4. Florida flatwoods range with saw palmetto invasion on deteriorated range- Infrequent fire and possibly past abuse from overstocking has depleted the climax bluestem understory allowing domination by the unpalatable, less fire-tolerant, invading palmetto. Osceola County, Florida. February.
FRES No. 12 (Longleaf-Slash Pine Ecosystem). K-106- (Subtroical Pine Forest [Southern Florida]), some departure from climax. SRM 811 (South Florida Flatwoods). Variant of Pine Series 123.12 of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland 123 of Brown et al. (1998, p.38). Southern Coastal Plain- Eastern Florida Flatwoods Ecoregion, 75d (Griffith et al., undated).
121254 and 121255.
Future Florida forest- Seedlings of slash pine in an herbaceous understorey of a bluestem range with major species including creeping (Andropogon stolonifer), Elliott's bluestem (A. elliottii), chalky bluestem (A. capillipes), shortspike bluestem (A. brachystachys), and toothachegrass (Ctenium aromaticum). There was some cover of pineland threeawn (Aristida stricta), but htis was a pine-bluestem range cover type not a pine-wiregrass range type. Understorey of this forest was climax vegetation. as was woody component except that trees were not at old-growth state.
Avon Park Air Force Bombing Range, Highlands County, Florida. February. FRES No. 12 (Longleaf-Slash Pine Ecosystem). K-106- (Subtroical Pine Forest [Southern Florida]). SRM 811 (South Florida Flatwoods). Variant of Pine Series 123.12 of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland 123 of Brown et al. (1998, p.38). Southern Coastal Plain- Eastern Florida Flatwoods Ecoregion, 75d (Griffith et al., undated).
5. Slash pine plantation- Excellent management with thinning and prescribed burning to control saw palmetto. Understory is primarily wiregrass or threeawn, especially pineland threeawn (Aristida stricta). Avon Park Bombing and Gunnery Range, Florida. February. FRES No.12 (Longleaf-Slash Pine Ecosystem).Variant of K-106 (Subtropical Pine Forest [Southern Florida]), human-directed departure from climax and an example of agroforestry.
FRES No. 12 (Longleaf-Slash Pine Ecosystem). K-106- (Subtroical Pine Forest [Southern Florida]). SAF 84 (Slash Pine). Variant of Pine Series 123.12 of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland 123 of Brown et al. (1998, p.38). Southern Coastal Plain- Eastern Florida Flatwoods Ecoregion, 75d (Griffith et al., undated).
6. Needles and cones of slash pine (Pinus elliottii= P. caribrea= P. heterophylla)- The attractive long leaves of this fast-growing pine (and of the longleaf pine) are likely an example of evolution and adaptation to specific habitats. The pines sporting long needles are native to the Lower South where heavy snow and ice storms are rare. The shortleaf pine with it's much shorter leaves is native to the Upper South where infrequent but severe ice storms are a winter fact of life. Ice storms in particular can destroy a crop of young long-needle pines just as surely as ice in the form of hailstones wipes out a wheat crop.
Small (1933, p.5) remarked that slash pine produced the the softest wood of the eastern pines and had the most restricted biological range.
Standard references for slash pine included Sargent (1933, ps. 15-16), Vines (1960, ps. 20-22), Harlow et al. (1979, ps. 97-98), and Burns and Honkala (1990).
7. Slash pine plantation-This stand was recently thinned to two-thirds of pre-thinning density; about 20 years post-planting. Slash will be disposed of primarily by prescribed burning which will do "double-duty" of reducing cover of saw palmetto and the likelihood of danger to trees from wild fire.Pine will be harvested at about 45 to 50 years post-planting. Slash pine stands such as this are clearly transitory forest range with a grazable understory persisting only until pines grow large enough that their crowns form a closed canopy which excludes light from the forest floor. Avon Park Bombing and Gunnery Range, Florida. February. FRES No. 12 (Longleaf-Slash Pine Ecosystem). Variant of K-106 as explained immediately above.SAF 84 (Slash Pine). Variant of Pine Series in Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). Southern Coastal Plain- Eastern Florida Flatwoods Ecoregion, 75d (Griffith et al., undated).
8. Bayou range in the core of Texas Big Thicket- This frequently flooded bottomland site has high clay content soils that dry rapidly (due to high evapo-transpiration rates) creating an understory dominated by dwarf palmetto (Sabal minor). The tree layer defines this laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia)-overcup oak (Q. lyrata)-loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) forest range type. This is an edaphic climax as viewed from the perspective ofpolyclimax theory. Little Pine Island Bayou, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas. May. FRES No. 16 (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem).One of many variants of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). One of the numerous variants of SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Oak-Pine Series in Northeastern Deciduous Forest biotic community (even though in southeastern part of continent; an Oak-Pine Series for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community would seen warranted) of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
9. Climatic (= regional) climax of Texas Big Thicket- American beech (Fagus grandifolia)-southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora)-white oak (Quercus alba)-loblolly pine forest. In Clementsian monoclimax theory this is the ultimate formation, the endpoint of vegetation development to which all vegetation of this region converges. It is the climax on mesic, level, upland areas. Trees left to right: southern red oak (Quercus falcata var. pagodifolia), magnolia, loblolly pine and beech. Lance Rosier Unit, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas. May. This magnificant forest cover type was apparently too small for FRES or Kuchler to "pigeon-hole". As it is one of the southern forest types with a pine as one dominant species it would have to be included in FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder.However, the close "kinship"of this forest to the mixed mesophytic and mixed hardwoods forests (both in the Southeastern Evergreen Forest Region) and to the mixed mesophytic forest in the Southern Appalachians of the Oak-Chestnut Forest Region (Braun, 1950, ps. 199-205, 297-303) strongly suggested that this cover type most closely fit Kuchler-95 (Applalachian Oak Forest) which is an equivalent under FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem).
Frankly, it was surprising to this author that Kuchler did not give a more specific designation for this major, though restricted, type given that Braun (1950, p. 445) specified that it could be seen as a separate association the same as for the Oak-Hickory Association and the Beech-Maple Association both of which have FRES and Kuchler recognitions. (Braun [1950, ps. 443-445] placed the Beech-Magnolia climax in the Mixed Mesophytic Association as transitional between Deciduous and Broad-leaved Evergreen Formations.) The Society of American Foresters (1980) also missed this one. The closest SAF forest cover type is probably 82 (Loblolly Pine- Hardwood) but that is not close enough. Beyond any doubt beech and magnolia are the recognized dominants and the pine is the least of the dominants. Only with man-set prescribed fire could the loblolly pine be maintained at higher proportions of the climax community.This is primarily a hardwood type and certainly not a pine-oak type. Braun (1950, ps. 300-303, enclosed map) discussed and mapped the beech-magnolia forest as part of the Southeastern Evergreen Forest Region. Braun did not map at association levels. Perhaps western island of Mixed Mesophytic Series in Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
10. Climax mixed mesophytic forest (the beech-magnolia-loblolly pine type)- This is the westernmost extension of a forest type dominant in the Great Smokey Mountains and Applachian region. Tree in foreground is American beech; trees on far left are magnolia. Lance Rosier Unit, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas, May. Mesic site. FRES and Kuchler recognitions (lack thereof) discussed immediately above. Variant of SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
11. Climax of the mixed mesophytic forest- In the Clementsian concept of climax (ie. a monoclimax or regional climax determined primarily by climate) the ultimate expression of potential natural vegetation of the deep pineywoods (general hardwood, namely oak,-pine forest) is a mixing of this regional climax with elements of the mixed mesophytic forest to the east. In this species-rich forest vegetation southern magnolia and American beech join with white oak (and several other oak species as shown below) and loblolly pine to form a unique forest range community that can be visualized as postclimax (ie. more mesic than the general climax of the area or region) as was explained by braun (1950, p.13).
This photograph of a mixed mesophytic X white oak-loblolly pine forest (ie. an overlapping or ecotone of these two was on a locally wet site and featured a large, old southern magnolia (foremost tree in center foreground with bulging trunk) growing beside (to right of) an immense white hockory, mockernut hickory, hognut hickory, or white-heart hickory (Carya tomentosa) with readily identifiable soft gray bark and pointed compound leaves. These two "champines" of their respective spceis stood majestically in front of loblolly pine, white oak, laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia) and cherrybark oak (Q. prinus). The backside (side away from the photograph) of this specific southern magnolia was shown in detail in the next photograph.
Lance Rosier Unit, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas, May. Mesic site. FRES and Kuchler recognitions (lack thereof) were covered in the photo caption before the immediately preceding slide. Variant of SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
12. Goosepen in the Big Thicket- The forester's term, goosepen, is "a place hollowed out by fire at the base of a standing tree" (Munns, 1950). This large fire scar (it extended to a height of nearly five feet) was on the backside of the large southern magnolia featured in the immediately preceding photograph. Such fire scars on old trees attest to incidence of surface forest fires in the pineywoods the same as obtains for all other regions of the eastern deciduous forest.
Lance Rosier Unit, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas, May.
13. Climatic climax vegetation type of Big Thicket form of Texas Piney Woods- The beech-magnolia-white oak-loblolly pine forest cover type. This is the ultimate expression, the mesophytic form, of the Big Thicket forest.Magnolia, far left; white oak; center right. Note lush understory of browse plants even under closed forest canopy at climax. Tree species visible include loblolly pine, laurel oak, and swamp chestnut oak (Quercus prinus).Lance Rosier Unit, Big Thicket National Preserve. May, vernal aspect; mesic site. Problems with unit recognition by FRES, Kuchler, and SAF discussed two slides above. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
14. Southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora)- A beautiful flower of the stately southern magnolia against a backdrop of the broad sclerophyllus leaves of this climax pineywoods species. State Tree of Mississippi.
The first example of the water oak (Quercus nigra) forest cover type shown immediately below was in a commercial forest in the Big Thicket section of the Texas Pineywoods. This water oak forest vegetation was adjacent to loblolly pine stands and a forest dominated by loblolly pine, water oak, American holly both with a lower woody layer comprised primarily of yaupon or, often called, yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria).
Water oak has been regarded as Intolerant as to tolerance and as a subclimax species that is quite susceptible to fire damage (Fowells, 1965, p. 630; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol. 2, p. 703). Thus while light surface fires tend to maintain pines like the associated loblolly pine, major fire damage as with crown fires would select for regeneration of water oak. In absence of fire plant succession would progress to a climax of hardwoods, which in the Big Thicket would commonly be American beech, southern magnolia, American holly, and climax oaks such as white oak.
15. Water oaks in the Pineywoods- Exterior view of a local stand of water oak growing on a flatland forest site that frequently ponded water. Loblolly pine were growing around perimeter of the water oak stand. Yaupon grew as widely scattered individuals while most of the ground layer was oak leaves with scattered plants of longleaf woodoats (Uniola sessifolia), cottongrass bulrush (Scirpus cyperinus), and green flat sedge (Cyperus virens). These species (from this locale) were featured below under the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly form or subtype of loblolly pine-hardwoods forest. The largest--and also the most scarce-- herbaceouss pecies was bentawn plumegrass (Erianthus contortus) which was also featured below.
Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. This is a component or subtype of the general hardwood-pine southern forest forest that has one of the southeastern yellow pines a dominant or, sometimes, an associate species with oaks, hickories, or even beech as the more common climatic dominant (in contrast to a fire-determined dominant). Overall this forest range vegetation would have to be included in FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder. SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
Inside the water oaks- Interior of the local stand of water oak presented immediately above. This was a local consociation of Quercus nigra with a "broken" (widely scattered) population of yaupon holly and local herbaceous cover composed variously of longleaf woodoats, cottongrass or woolgrass bulrush, green flat sedge, and panicgrasses (Panicum spp.). This isolated water oak stand was adjacent to a mixed forest of loblolly pine, wter oak, and American holly (covered below).
Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder. SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004)..
16. One of the more common forms or manifestations of oak forest in the Pineywoods of Texas and Louisiana is the Palmetto-Oak Flats (Ajilvsgi, 1979, ps. 12-13) or, when expressed as to topographic-edaphic rather than botanical features, Clayey Wet Upland Depressions (Diggs et al., 2006, ps. 97-98). Ajilvsgi (1979, p. 12) described overcup oak and laurel oak as dominants whereas Diggs et al., (2006, p. 98) emphasized willow oak and green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) as major plants of the larger tree species. The Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980, p. 63) described the willow oak-water oak-diamondleaf or laurel oak type (SRM 88) as developing on a topographic-soil moisture gradient intermediate between the swamp chestnut oak-cherrybark oak type (SRM 91) and the overcup oak-water hickory type (SRM 96) with dominance of SRM 88 tending to change to non-oak hard spceies like green ash under heavy logging or high-grading.
The photographs shown below were of a water oak-willow oak forest with a lower shrub layer made up almost exclusively of dwarf palmetto and a herbaceous layer(s) of sedges, rushes, bulrushes, and panicoid grasses. Views of the Oak-Palmetto Flats in these slides were presented so as to view this forest range vegetation going from exterior to deep interior as if the viewer were traveling to and then into it.
17. Coming onto the Oak-Palmetto Flats- Exterior view of an example of the willow oak-water oak-diamondleaf (laurel) oak type showing physiogonomy and overall species composition of this form of Pineywoods. Dominant species of this stand was water oak with willow (locally known as "pin" oak). Laurel oak was a distant third Quercus species. Blackgum or black tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) was another associate tree species. The largest tree with the horizontal upper limb and fire-scarred basal trunk was an ancient water oak readily idetified by the sporadically scattered, prominent "warts" of bark. Loblolly pine was represented by one conspicuous tree in center midground. There were other infrequent loblolly pine throughout. Young trees grouped at right foreground were a mixture of water and willow oak and very black tupelo. Dwarf palmetto made up a lower shrub layer. Grassses and grasslike plants comprised one or two (rarely three) herbaceous layers in the forest understorey. Herbaceous plants were most common around perimeter of the forest vegetation. Individuals of broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) were prominent in foreground understorey.
Hardin County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder. SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
18. Edge of an Oak-Palmetto Flats forest range- Around perimeter of a stand of water and willow oak with dwarf palmetto were various local assemblages of herbaceous plants. The latter included cottongrass bulrush and miscellaneous sedges, both Carex and Cyperus species (eg. green flat sedge [C. virens]), along with panicgrasses, especially beaked panicgrass (Panicum anceps); paspalums like brownseed paspalum (Paspalum plicatulum), and both broomsedge and bushy bluestem. These latter two species are invaders. These same species also formed herbaceous strata beneath the oaks and pines though with less continuous cover and smaller plants, conditions likely resultant from fairly dense shade. Water and willow oaks are Intolerant species.
Hardin County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder. SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
19. Into the Pineywoods flats we go- These three photographs were a pictorial "walk to the woods", a sequence of slides showing the range vegetation of a water oak-willow oak- loblolly pine-palmetto-herbaceous plants Pineywoods flats. Continually closer-in views allowed presentation of the herbaceous layer(s) of native vegetation that was better developed at outer edge of the forest stand. Some of the common herbaceous species of this vegetation were presented below in the section devoted to the loblolly pine cover type, specifically the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly form or subtype thereof. The smaller trees in foreground with unshed lower limbs (most of them still alive but senescing) were willow oak. Locals hereabouts apply the otherwise confusing and nonstandardized common name of "pin oak" to Quercus phellos. "Pin" in several oak species refers to any of the lower, usually dead, unshed limbs (ie. dying or dead limbs on species that do self-pruning, but instead become well-seasoned or preserved and, hence, persistent on the lower bole). There were a few scattered woody vines, the only one of which the author-photographer identified was rattan (= Alabama supplejack).
Once inside the Pineywoods flats the interior of the water oak-willow oak-dwarf palmetto-herbaceous range community revealed a "closer-in" view of plant species composition and the lower woody layer of palmetto and the local vertical zone of herbaceous species. Largest trunk was that of a young to mid-age water oak with bark characteristic of an immature tree. At this stage of maturity bark of water oak and willow oak is so similar as to be indistinguishable, thereby making reliance on leaves and buds necessary for definitive indetification. "Warty" bark on older water oak bark was just forming on this straight-trunked specimen, but some smaller water oaks had larger "warts".
Grass shoot (visible in both photographs) in front of this water oak was broomsedge bluestem, a common invader of Oak-Palmetto, which was common and conspicuous throughout this oak flats stand. Almost all herbaceous species were grasses or grass-like plants and, as this was dead of winter and this range had been grazed so that most species had to be identified by vegetative features, most herbs could not be identified by the author who was a "stranger to these parts". The tallest green herb was cottongrass bulrush (shown and described briefly below). There were no prominent forbs in this forest range vegetation. Dwarf palmetto comprised a single-species, lower, woody layer.
Hardin County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder. SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
20. "Up-and-dicular" perspective of a Oak-Palmetto Flats- Structure and species composition of the water oak-willow oak-dominated Pineywoods flatwoods described under horizontal photographs above. Architecture of this stand was displayed to better advantage in these two photographs. Most hardwood trees were water oak and willow oak of sapling to small pole size. Those with persistent lower limbs were willow oak. There was an "occasional" black tupelo (also of sapling-pole size).
Cover and density of palmetto was shown to good advantage in the first of these two slides while the frequent openings within the palmetto that were populated by grasses and grasslike plants were evident in the second slide. Tree in left foreground with live lower limb was willow oak.
This stand was obviously a second-growth forest. A cohort of sapling to small pole size oaks had developed beneath larger, established (older) but very widely scattered, mature oaks of both species. Structure and, especially, botanical composition of this stand was typical of climax water oak-willow oak-laurel oak-palmetto vegetation. Both willow oak and water oak are classified as Intolerant and recruitment of these species had been possible under a mostly open sky (sparse canopy of oak and loblolly pine). Natural thinning of oaks had already commenced as evidenced by the dead toppled pole (visible in both photographs). This will undoubtedly continue resulting in more dead younger oaks and fewer, though larger, trees (fewer boles but more board foot/acre) and eventually greater oak crown cover (increased--though by no means closed--tree canopy).
The apparent dominant herbaceous species was cottongrass bulrush. Numerous individuals of broomsedge bluestem were conspicuous with their tannish yellow shoots dispersed among bulrush and other grasslike plants.
Hardin County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder. SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
21. Closing, composite shot of Pineywoods Oak-Palmetto Flats- All-in-one shot of species composition and structure (architeture) the water oak-willow oak-loblolly pine-palmetto-cottongrass bulrush-broomsedge bluestem community featured above. All of these species except loblolly pine, which dominated (generally and/or locally) their respecive layers of vegetation, were visible (if not obvious). In addition, rattan (= Alabamas supplejack) was featured prominently growing up trunks of oaks in left midground. Almost all oak trunks of any age are hosts to various crustose lichen, at least on north and east exposure.
Hardin County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder. SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al (1998) (but should be for Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest biotic community). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
crown hignight
Water oak (Quercus nigra)- Upper trunk and crown of water oak showing leaves and bark of intermediate maturity. Older or most mature bark of water oak often forms wart-like raised areas (basal trunk and stump area). Houston County, Texas. March.
22. Dwarf palmetto, blue palmetto, swamp palmetto, dwarf palm, blue palm, etc. (Sabal minor)- Large, mature swamp palmetto with previous season's floral stalk and spent inflorescence. This true palm is most commonly acaulescent (lacking a trunk or bole) though sometimes there are individuals that have a single, short woody stalk which would "pass for" a trunk. The shoot or stem does not branch and is characterized as woody or pithy in nature.
The speciment portrayed here was growing in the water oak-willow oak-lobollly pine-palmetto-cottongrass bulrush-broomsedge stand featured above. Hardin County, Texas, February.
Another form or subtype of the primarily water oak (with willow oak locally con-dominant) cover type in the Texas-Louisiana Pineywoods develops as a transition zone between the hardwood-pine forest and the Gulf Coast marsh with one or the other of the major range plant communities (forest or marsh) having apparent dominance or predominance as aspect dominance (ie. either widely scattered hardwoods and pine with profusely branching, open crowns growing in a marsh or, alternatively, grasses, sedges, rushes, bulrushes, and other herbaceous marsh species growing as a sparse understorey beneath twater oak, willow oak, laurel oak, overcup oak, blackgum or black tupelo, green ash, and loblolly pine). It seemed to this author that it was less confusing and more consistent to include full coverage of this ecotonal range vegetation at this location rather than with Gulf Coastal marsh which was covered under the chapter, Tallgrass Prairie (Coastal).
This forest range vegetation typically develops as or into a savanna and should in general be interpreted as such. Occasionally, however, there will be local communities of this ecotonal vegetation that appear to be more of forest (at least woodland) physiogonomy. This latter range plant community develops on depressions or ponded local sites. Both expressions of this ecotone are wetlands and were included below.
23. Out of the woods and onto the marsh- Exterior view of ecotone of Pineywoods and Gulf Coast marsh. Extreme eastern edge of hardwood-pine forest and beginning of coastal sedge-bulrush-tallgrass freshwater marsh. Feature of ponded water with combination of wet mesophytic and hydrophytic trees and an understorey of grasses and grasslike plants. Trees clearly dominanted the forest- or woodland-phase of this savanna wetland at edge of the Pineywoods forest whereas the predominant marsh-phase or form of this ecotone was in the background (and featured in succeeding slides). Even in this slide that emphasized the tree-dominated form there were scattered individuals of cottongrass bulrush (larger green clumps), numerous species of Carex and Cyperus along with various grasses of genera Panicum, Paspalum, and Andropogon.
Tree species visible in this photograph included water oak, willow oak, blackgum or black tupelo, green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), and loblolly pine.
Hardin County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. This ecotone or transition zone perhaps should be given its own designation as a distinct potential natural vegetation, but such a classification unit of rangeland or forest vegetation as cover type either by Society for Range Manageament or Society of American Foresters), Forest and Range Ecosystem (USDA Forest Service) or by Brown et al., (1998). There was further--even more--confusion as to most precise desingation of the herbaceous wetland because it had features (species composition, structure, geographic location) of both SRM 711 (Bluestem-Sacahuista Prairie) and SRM 807 (Gulf Coast Fresh Marsh) as if it was a mixture of these two rangeland cover tyhpes. Closest overall vegetational designation with existing classification systems is a combination or "hybrid" of: FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder, SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak), Mixed hardwood Series (223.13), Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al (1998, p. 43) and FRES No.41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem) with K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie) the Kuchler equivalent thereunder, SRM 711 X 807, Southeastern Interior Marshland (243.1), Warm Temperate Marshland of Brown et al. (1998, p. 45). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
24. Interior of the ecotone between a mixed hardwoods flat and freshwater marsh- Inside the woodland- or forest-form or phase of an overall or general savanna formed by the transition between eastern edge of hardwood-pine Pineywoods and Gulf Coastal marsh of sedges, bulrushes, and panicoid grasses. Although the local site shown here has ponded water much of the year it is not inundated for a long enought period to qualify as a swamp. Presence of blackgum or black tupelo, a swamp species, along with a few individuals of overcup oak (Quercus lyrata) attested to extended periods of saturated (= a hydric state) soil. Dominance of this plant community by water oak and willow oak showed this site to be intermediate between poorly drained sites of overcup oak-water hickory forest and better-drained sites dominated by swamp chestnut oak and cherrybark oak (Eyre, 1980, p. 63). Dwarf or swamp palmetto (eg. center midground of first slide) was the main shrub, but individuals of this species were too widely scattered to form a shrub or lower woody layer. Most common and largest herbaceous species in understorey beneath trees on this ponded habitat was cottongrass bulrush (visible as large green tufts and also a component in large dried clumps of herbage). Carex, Cyperus, Panicum, Paspalum, Andropogon (especially A. virginicus, broomsedge bluestem, and A. glomeratus, bushy bluestem), and bentawn plumegrass were present either under crown canopy or adjacent to crown drip line.
Loblolly pine in this wetland vegetation was represented by the largest trunk in the second slide. Tree immediately to right of the loblolly pine was a green ash. Foremost tree (left foreground) was a water oak.
Hardin County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. Tree-dominated phase of this savanna that was an ecotone of: FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder, SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak), Mixed hardwood Series (223.13), Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al (1998, p. 43) and FRES No.41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem) with K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie) the Kuchler equivalent thereunder, SRM 711 X 807, Southeastern Interior Marshland (243.1), Warm Temperate Marshland of Brown et al. (1998, p. 45). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
25. Outer perspective of hardwood-pine flats X fresh Gulf Coast marsh ecotone- Two views of the transition zone (and quite a tension zone at that) of a water oak-willow oak-overcup oak-blackgum-green ash-loblolly pine-palmetto community and a cottongrass bulrush-sedge-bluestem-panicgrass-paspalum-cordgrass freshwater coastal marsh. In contrast to the tree-dominated form of this ecotone presented above this showed the more widespread--and more savannah-like-- form of a marsh with scattered trees of the just-listed tree species. The largest trees and with spreading crowns in the first of these two photographs were water oak. Trees in center of second photograph included black tupelo (three trunks together).
Identification of grasslike plants and most grasses was impossible in the existing state of decay and/or shattered fruit. Large individuals of cottongrass bulrush and broomsedge bluestem were exceptions. The Illustrated Flora of East Texas (Diggs et al., 2006) indicated 42 species of sedge (Carex spp.) and 18 species of flatsedge (Cyperus spp.) for the small county of Hardin. It was unquestionable that many of these species, along with species of spikerush (Eleocharis spp.) and bulrush (Scirpus spp.) as well as panicoid grasses such as bushy and broomsedge bluestem and isolated large individuals of sacahuista or Gulf cordgrass (Spartina spartinae), were present on this botanically diverse savannah. Forbs were limited nearly to point of "nonexistence".
Hardin County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. This ecotone was a combination of : FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder, SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak), Mixed hardwood Series (223.13), Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al (1998, p. 43) and FRES No.41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem) with K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie) the Kuchler equivalent thereunder, SRM 711 X 807, Southeastern Interior Marshland (243.1), Warm Temperate Marshland of Brown et al. (1998, p. 45). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
26. Inside an east Texas transition zone- Interior views of a savannah formed by the ecotone of a wet flatwoods made up of water and willow oak (dominants), with some overcup oak and laurel oak, loblolly pine, green ash, and black tupelo and of freshwater marsh composed of cottongrass bulrush, sedges, flatsedges, spikerushes, panicgrasses, paspalums, bentawn plumegrass, bushy and broomsedge bluestem (beardgrasss), and common cattail.
Most of the trees in the first photograph were water oak; trunks of trees at far right margin of second photograp were overcup oak (Quercus lyrata).Immediately to left of the overcup oak (near center foreground) were shoots of bushy bluestem (closesst to overcup oak) and broomsedge bluestem (to left of the bushy beardgrass). Conspicuous green clumps were mostly cottongrass bulrush.
Hardin County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. This ecotone was a combination of : FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem) with K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) being the Kuchler equivalent listed thereunder, SAF 88 (Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf [Laurel] Oak), Mixed hardwood Series (223.13), Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al (1998, p. 43) and FRES No.41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem) with K-70 (Southern Cordgrass Prairie) the Kuchler equivalent thereunder, SRM 711 X 807, Southeastern Interior Marshland (243.1), Warm Temperate Marshland of Brown et al. (1998, p. 45). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
27. Pool in the Pineywoods X Gulf Coastal marsh ecotone- At spatial scale of local site (in this instance, a larger microhabitat or microsite) a pool in the transition zone between hardwoods-pine flats and freshwater coastal marsh supported an array of aquatic plants from bulrushes and sedges of the Cyperaceae to common cattail (Typha latifolia) of Typhaceae. In the first slide longleaf pondweed (Potamogeton nodosus) was floating on the pool surface. Trees surrounding pool were water and willow oaks.
Hardin County, Texas. February, hibernal aspect. Range vegetation of this locale was described in captions of preceding slides.
Loblolly pine is the mainstay of the forest products in the southeastern forest of North America. Loblolly pine (and hybrids thereof) is the single most important species across this general region though, of course, other species including pines are the major lumber/pulp species in portions of the southeastern forest region (eg. slash pine in peninsular Florida). The classic though dated reference for loblolly pine probably is still the monograph by Wahlenberg (1960) with the work of Schultz (1997) a fine successor.
Organization note: this section is a "sampler" of loblolly pine. Complete coverage of loblolly pine forest range was shown in its own chapter, Loblolly Pine Forests.
28. Trunk of loblolly pine- This is the typical pattern and color of bark on this the largest of the four major pine species in the Southern Pine Region. Appropriately the bark bears the burnished coloration of past cool surface fires. A Virginia creeper or woodbine (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) with newly emerged leaves was climbing the attractive trunk.
Crocket National Forest, Houston County, March.
29. Cones of loblolly pine- Relative size, shape, and unique gross features of loblolly pine were presented in these two views of two cones of the dominant pine over much of the southeastern portion of the deciduous forest of North America in cluding the pineywoods of east Texas and western Louisiana. The reproductive (sexual) organs of conifers are borne on a woody or fleshy (berry-like) structure that is designated a strobulus (strobili is the plural). These stroboli are called cones by foresters and most regular folk other than "real" botanists. Conifers produce separate male (staminate) and female (ovulate) cones so that this group of gymnosperms are either diocecious or monecious. Moneciousness is the general arrangement for most genera in Pinaceae (Pinus, Abies, Picea, Tsuga, Pseudotsuga), Cupressaceae (Cupressus, Thuja, Juniperus), and Taxodiaceae (Taxodium, Sequoia, Sequoiadendron)..
Montgomery County, Texas. February (most seed had shattered from the woody ovulatecone).
30. Seed in a cone- Two views of a seed in the ovulate cone of loblolly cone. A seed of loblolly pine was shown without a marker in the first slide whereas the base of a fasicle of loblolly pine marked one seed in the second slide slide.The brown, parchment-resembling wing of this single seed (one of a pair) was cut away to more clearly reveal the dry seed. Most other seeds, including the other one of this cone unit, had shattered (been shed) from this cone.
The cone of conifers in the Pinaceae is a compound woody structure comprised of numerous units on which the seed, with its attendant parts, develops and is borne while developing before being shed. Each woody unit of the ovulate cone is is a primary appendage-- a woody bract-- that is called the ovuliferous scale. This woody scale is the ovule/seed-bearing part of the cone (strobolus). Typically a pair of ovules, each of which develops into a dry seed (complete with a winged part for wind dispersal), form on the adaxial (= upper) surface of each woody ovuliferous scale resulting in formation of two seed scars on this upper surface (in the axil where scale joins the central woody axis of the cone.
Montgomery County, Texas. February.
31. Core and treasure of the cone- Another view of a seed near apex of cone of loblolly pine. Then two views of a pair of loblolly pine seeds on adaxial surface of ovuliferous scale (ie. in axillary area where woody scale attached to central shaft of the cone). In the first of these two photographs the wing on the left seed of the pair was twisted far to the right for better viewing of the wing, but the wing was in from of (covering up) the right seed. In the second photograph the wing of both seeds of this pair had been removed to more clearly reveal the two seeds.
Montgomery County, Texas. February.
32. Future loblolly pines- Unshattered loblolly pine seeds taken from the cones shown above. Some seeds still had their wings attached whereas others were missing these wind-dispersal facilitting organs. Steel measure indicated the size of seed and wings. The two seeds with attached, intact wings were a pair attached on the same woody ovuliferous scale.
Montgomery County, Texas. February.
33. Up-close look- Seeds of loblolly pine were shown at closer distance to present details of seed coat and texture of the fragile woody material making up wings. Pines are examples of seed dispersal by wind, anemochory (= aerochory), in which wings facilitate action of wind as an agent or facilitator of sexual reproduction. Wind also operates as facilitator during pollination.
Montgomery County, Texas. February.
34. Loblolly pine forest- Second (or "third", "fourth", etc.)- growth, but natural revegetation with an open understory dominated by little bluestem. Associated understory herbs include slender-leaf wood oats (Uniola sessiliflora) plus species ofPaspalum, Panicum, and Sporobolus among grasses plus native legumes like tickclover (Desmodium spp.) and numerous composites.
Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, vernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest): the southern pine types have traditionally been interpreted as sub-climax fire-types and this seral stage is maintained by foresters in order to produce the more valuable pine wood products. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Oak Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). This type is clearly transitory forest range with total loss of understory as pines approach maturity as was shown below. South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).
35. Going into a loblolly pine pine- Stucture and botanical composition of a second-growth loblolly pine forest showing an herbaceous layer dominated by little bluestem followed by longleaf woodoats then beaked panicgrass with two annual panicgrass species sometimes locally functioning as associates, a tall shrub layer represented by flowering dogwood in full-flower, and a lower shrub layer (in this vegetation) of which yaupon holly was the major species. The two annual panicgrasses were warty panicgrass (Panicum verrucosum) and savanna panicgrass (P. gymnocarpon).
Fire-scourched bark attested to use of prescribed or, at least, convenience burning in a Pineywoods oak-pine forest that was maintained primarily as a loblolly pine stand.
Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, vernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest): the southern pine types have traditionally been interpreted as sub-climax fire-types and this seral stage is maintained by foresters in order to produce the more valuable pine wood products. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Oak Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). This type is clearly transitory forest range with total loss of understory as pines approach maturity as was shown below. South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).
36.Transitory loblolly pine forest range- Loblolly pine forest range at either: 1) late seral stage with loblolly pine maintained in a hardwood (mostly an oak)-pine forest by frequent burning or 2) a mid-stage (more-or-less) of a wood crop in a thin (sparsely or weakly stocked) stand of loblolly pine. Either way there was low stocking of loblolly pine, the tree crop species, and a well-developed, high-yielding (by loblolly pine range standards) herbaceous understorey for grazing livestock and/or wildlife.
This was the same stand of loblolly pine forest vegetation as introduced in the immediately preceding photograph. Dominant grass in this "photo-plot" of that loblolly pine forest range was little bluestem with longleaf woodoats, beaked panicgrass, savanna panicgrass, and warty panicgrass also present.
Foremost tree (slightly to right of a conspicuous pine trunk) was sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua). A young sassafras (Sassafras albidum) with just-beginning-to-open leaves was growing at left margin of photograph. Yaupon of sundry sizes was widespread throughout the woody layers.
Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, vernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest): the southern pine types have traditionally been interpreted as sub-climax fire-types and this seral stage is maintained by foresters in order to produce the more valuable pine wood products. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Oak Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). This type is clearly transitory forest range with total loss of understory as pines approach maturity as was shown below. South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).
37. Growing doghair- In the same understorey as presented in the last two preceding photographs and captions there were some very localized (restricted) areas near mature loblolly pine trees on which there were extremely dense patches of pine seedings. Obviously not all of these seedlings could survive, but it was also obvious that these would develop into proverbial "doghair stands" unless something thinned them out. If natural agents of mortality such as fire and disease did not eliminate some of these woefully overstocked little blessings of Mother Nature then Man the Forester would have to intervene in order to achieve efficient management of forest resources. One such "doghair stand" of loblolly pine seedlings was presented in foreground of this photograph.
Various Panicum species (major ones were listed in the preceding caption) were the major grasses on this "photo-plot".
Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, vernal aspect. Leaves on hardwood species (such as one in left foreground) were just emerging from buds. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest): the southern pine types have traditionally been interpreted as sub-climax fire-types and this seral stage is maintained by foresters in order to produce the more valuable pine wood products. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Oak Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). This type is clearly transitory forest range with total loss of understory as pines approach maturity as was shown below. South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).
38. A crop of poles- Closed canopy stand of loblolly pine with no herbaceous (grazable) understorey and lower woody layers limited to Tolerant flowering dogwood and yaupon. As a wood crop this single-species stand of loblolly pine was approaching (within a few years of) maturity. This plantation stand was an example of industrial foresty. On this commercial forest the wood crop was a monoculture of fast-growing, hybrid loblolly pine.
Such loblolly pine plantations are a form of even-aged silviculture (silvicultural system). This crop will be harvested in a few years by clearcutting, "a regeneration or harvest method that removes essentially all trees in a stand" (Helms, 1998). Harvest will result in release of many species of grasses, grasslike plants, forbs, shrubs, and Intolerant tree species like sweetgum. Several of the grass species such as those presented in preceding slides will persist for a number of years and through mid-sere of secondary plant succession. Tree species like sweetgum and numerous oaks and hickories will persist unless eliminated by application of selective herbicides or reduced by commercial livestock grazing and/or prescribed burning. Combinations of these silvicultural treatments may be used (as shown periodically throughout this chapter). This and preceding slides of loblolly pine forest vegetation illustrated transitory forest range that is typical of forest cropping systems on commercial (industrial) forests throughout much of southeastern North America.
Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, early vernal aspect (time of the dogwood-redbud tours). This was an anthropogenic variant of the following vegetational units. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Biotic community unit of Brown et al. (1998, ps. Oak-Pine Series, 1212.14 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 except that there should have been an Oak-Pine Series, say 123.13, os Southeastern Deciduous and Evergree Forest 123.1.South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004). Another interpretation of this highly human-modified (= non-natural) forest vegetation was FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). The Kuchler designation would still be K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) while the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) would be a man-made forest cover type of Loblolly Pine (SAF81).
Clarification of terms: the following concepts and definitions were provided from The Dictionary of Forestry developed by the Society of American Foresters (Helms, 1998) to assist students in understanding management and production of grazing and/or browsing resources on transitory forest range.
Silvicultural system- a planned series of treatments for tending, harvesting, and re-establishing a stand.
Regeneration method- a cutting procedure by which a new age class is created.
Even-aged regeneration methods regenerate and maintain a stand with a single age class. One even-aged method is clearcutting which is the cutting of essentially all trees, producing a fully exposed microclimate for the development of a new age class (by either natural or artificial re-eatablishment of the next generation, crop, of trees)
39. "Will the real Pineywoods please stand up?"- "You bet, and this is it." In contrast to the loblolly pine plantation introduced in the immediately preceding slide (and several used below to illustrate silvicultural methods) here were two views of the natural oak-hickory-loblolly pine forest vegetation. This was a second-growth forest recovering from the heady days of "cut-and-run" heady logging, but it had the structure (including several layers of vegetation) and species composition of the native mixed hardwood-loblolly pine. Flowering dogwood and lesser cover of redbud hearlded the early days of spring in this sandy land (note road) upland Pineywoods forest. Not exactly a lobolly pine plantation as shown immediately above and farther below. Water oak, accompanied adult and sapling to pole-size loblolly pine. This forest consisted essentially of the species compoisition indicative of the climax vegetation except that following initial frontier, destructive, non-scientific logging; overgrazing (including by free-ranging, mast and root-eating hogs); and underburning (more likely, total fire exclusion) there was only limited herbaceous understorey (mostly of bluestem, panicgrass, and paspalum species along with some sedges and flatsedges)
Davy Crockett National Forest, Houston County, Texas. March, early vernal aspect (time of the dogwood-redbud tours). FRES No. 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Biotic community unit of Brown et al. (1998, ps. Oak-Pine Series, 1212.14 of Northeastern Deciduous Forest 122.1 except that there should have been an Oak-Pine Series, say 123.13, os Southeastern Deciduous and Evergree Forest 123.1.South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).
40. Open understory(= permanent forest range) loblolly pine forest- This loblolly forest is growing immediately above the first terrace of the Sabine River. Recurrent fire (note small fire scar on base of first tree on the left) after establishment of loblolly pines maintained an open understory predominately of perennial wiregrass or threeawn species like woolyleaf threeawn (Aristida lanosa), longspike or slimspike threeawn (A. longespica), and purple or arrowfeather threeawn (A. purpurascens) with broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) and splitbeard bluestem (A. ternarius) as associates. Pioneer annual composites like giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida) and horseweed (Conyza canadensis= Erigeron canadensis) are also present, but as last year's weathered-down stalks. Flowering dogwood (which is at peak bloom in this view) dominates the upper shrub layer with yaupon (green shrub beneath the blooming dogwood) as dominant of the lower shrub layer.
Under the current fire regime this is permaent loblolly pine forest range. It stands in contrast to the transitory loblolly pine forest range where there is denser tree stocking combined with discontinued use of prescribed burning to produce pulp wood instead of pine lumber as in the forest seen here. This range forest cover type persist as a result of the disturbance of repeated fire which kept out hardwood tree species like water and white oaks.The fire disturbance also made favorable habitat for old-field pioneer species such as the two weedy composites and annual threeawns like old-field threeawn (Aristida oligantha plus the similar A. desmantha) and churchmouse threeawn (A. dichotoma). The physiogonomy is that of climax Pineywoods but the absence of hardwood trees and the species composition of the herbaceous understory is clearly that of late seral (= subclimax) forest vegetation. It is a textbook example of "pine woods wiregrass range". Sabine River, Harrison County, Texas. Vernal aspect, March. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), man-modified variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Brown et al. (1998) Oak-Pine Series converted into Pine Series by human management. South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).
41. Climax Loblolly Pine-Hardwood-Pinehill Bluestem Pineywoods Forest- Although not old-growth forest, this is a classic composite Pineywoods community with the species composition of the virgin vegetation. Loblolly pine is the major dominant thereby establishing this as the loblolly pine form of the Pineywoods Complex, but water oak is co-dominant while sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is well-represented among the trees. The shrub layer is dominated by wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera). The herbaceous understory is remarkably diverse. Scattered small colonies of the rhizomatous decreaser pinehill bluestem (Andropogon divergens) serve as an indicator of what the climax dominant for this site should be. Other grasses include splitbeard bluestem, low or spreading panicgrass (Panicum rhizomatum), longleaf uniola (Uniola sessiliflora), and Florida paspalum (Paspalum floridanum). Several Carex species are present with considerable cover. The conspicuous graminoid in the immediate foreground is a species of bulrush (Scirpus sp.).
This is a bottomland loblolly pine-hardwood forest on the flood plain of the Sabine River. It is the forest vegetation just below that seen in the previous slide. It is less apt to burn and has a more favorable soil moisture regime than the previous forest range type. Recent and recurrent fire had to have been part of the environment however to maintain this open understory and the fire-adapted grasses. Rather than wiregrass loblolly pine forest range this is the pinehill bluestem-Florida paspalum-low panicum understory. It is produces much higher quality and higher yielding forage. Both the bluestem and wiregrass Pineywoods range types are permanent forest range with a persistent grazable understory.This is climax loblolly pine-oak hardwood forest while the previous plant community was seral loblolly pine forest vegetation. Sabine River bottom, Harrison County, Texas. Vernal aspect, March. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Anthropogenic Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).
42. Big Thicket loblolly pine woods- Exterior view of a loblolly pine-water oak subtype or variant of loblolly pine-hardwood cover type shjowing physiogonomy and botanical composition. At this edge (in a forest opening) young water oak, yaupon holly, and various herbaceous species and the layers they comprise provided an unusual composite "Big Picture" perspective of this forest range vegetation. The small oaks (pole-size) at base of pines were water oak. These young trees had not shed their dead leaves and even had a few persistent live leaves. Yaupon or yaupon holly composed almost all of the lower woody layer except for the regenerting oaks. Grasses were bushy and broomsedge bluestems and bentawn plumegrass.
Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
43. Edge of a loblolly pine-water oak forest- Detail of herbaceous and lower woody layers of the forest-clearing edge shown in the immediately preceding slide. Regenerated water oak saplings and yaupon made up a lower woody layer. Bentawn plumegrass and broomsedge bluestem and bushy beardgrass were the major herbaceous species. Pine seedlings bore witness to regeneration of loblolly pine.
Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. Designations of this forest range vegetation were given in the preceding caption.
44. Inside with the pines and oaks- Interior of the loblolly pine-water oak forest introduced in the two preceding slides and their captions. American holly (Ilex opaca) was an associate tree species. A few individuals of regenerating American holly and dense yaupon holly made up most of the lower or secondary woody layer. Adequate light on the forest floor at this stage of vegetation development permitted regeneration of pine as well as persistence of an herbaceous understorey consisting of two or three layers. In the interior of this forest community that was more shaded or, same thing, less well-lite than the forest edges shown above, the dominant herbaceous plant was longleaf woodoats (Uniola sessiflora) which "bumped out" the bluestem or beardgrass species and bentawn plumegrass. Other common to locally dominant herbaceous species included cottongrass bulrush, green flatsedge, beaked panicgrass (Panicum anceps), redtop panicgrass (P. rigidulum), and brownseed paspalum (Paspalum plicatluum). These herbaceous species grew together on local habitats (microhabitats at about largest spatial scale) within this loblolly pine-water oak-American holly forest community. Most of these were not visible at scale of these two photographs, but they were featured below at scale of both herbaceous layers and individual plants.
In the first of these two slides water oak and loblolly pine were visible as distinctive trees. The largest tree (left-of-center midground) was water oak. In the second of these photographs water oaks were relegated to midground and surrounded by loblolly pines. Yaupon and small saplings of American holly were widespread in the lower woody layer.
Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
45. Up close in the interior- Interior structure and species composition of a Big Thicket Pineywoods second-growth forest dominated by trees of loblolly pine, water oak, and American holly. Yaupon and small saplings of American holly made up bulk of lower woody layer(s). There was no reproduction of loblolly pine in the denser locale of the forest. Neither was there presence of herbaceous species.
Foremost trunk (left foreground) and four pole-size trunks were loblolly pine. Largest tree with straight bole (left midground) was water oak as were the two small saplings still with green leaves growing between the foremost loblolly pine and the large water oak.
Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
46. Loblolly pine-water oak-American holly subtype of Big Thicket Pineywoods- All-in-one shot of an example of this variant of a loblolly pine-hardwood forest cover type with yaupon and regenerating American holly comprising a lower woody layer and a local opening with longleaf woodoats and other herbaceous species. There was also much reproduction of water oak with numerous small saplings that had retained many of their leaves throughout the usually mild winter of the Big Thicket. Longleaf woodoats and local stands of other herbaceous species were also present though widely scattered.
All of the larger trees in midground were water oak except for one loblolly pine. This was an example that the climatic climax of these forest type is oak and not pine. Both cover types of Loblolly Pine (SAF 81) and Loblolly Pine-Hardwood (SAF 82) (Eyre, 1980) are fire types (ie. only under conditions where fire overrides other components of climate) does this forest vegetation have loblolly pine as a dominant or co-dominant species into climax stage.
Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
47. Longleaf woodoats (Uniola sessiflora)- Five plants of longleaf woodoats adorned the floor of a loblolly pine-water oak-American holly variant of the Loblolly Pine-Hardwood forest cover type (SAF 82). Liberty County, Texas. February.
48. In a small clearing- A small clearing provided adequate light for local stands of herbaceous vegetation, woody layers made up of yaupon and regenerated water oak. At edge of clearing the woody shoot of rattan or Alabama supplejack was climbing a young loblolly pine (small pole in right midground).
Species composition of the herbaceous layers was presented in the next slide.
Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
49. Something to graze- Two views of a local stand of herbaceous species in the understorey of the Pineywoods loblolly pine-water oak-American holly flatwoods forest shown and described immediately above. Largest and most common species was cottongrass bulrush followed by green flatsedge, redtop panicgrass, and longleaf woodoats. The latter species more commonly grows by itself as shown above, but it frequently grows in association with other grasses and grasslike plants.
Individual plants of the cottongrass bulrush and green flatsedge introduced in these two photographs were shown in more detail in the succeeding four slides.
Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect.
50. Cottongrass bulrush, wooly-grass bulrush, or wool-grass (Scirpus cyperinus)- This was one of the most common and largest species of grasslike plants in much of the wetter environments of the loblolly pine-hardwood forest cover type in the Big Thicket area of east Texas. Cottongrass bulrush was especially common (and locally dominant) on mesic to wet forest and range sites such as those for loblolly pine and the various forms of "oak flats" or "flatwoods".
The individual plant presented in this and the two slides above the next caption was one of several specimens growing on the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly forest community featured above
Liberty County, Texas. February.
51. Inflorescence of cottongrass bulrush- Two panicles on the same individual plant of cottongrass bulrush introduced in the immediately preceding photograph (one of several such bulrush plants shown in the two photographs preceding that last slide).
More recent taxonomic treatments of the Scirpus species such as that by Diggs et al. (2006) have rearranged many of these once-upon-a-time Scirpus members into such genera as Schoenoplectus, Bolboschoenus, Isolepis, and even Eleocharis! Interestingly, in this bulrush basket upset cottongrass bulrush remained as Scirpus cyperinus (ie. still a true bulrush as it were).
Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect.
52. Weathered flat- A highly weathered panicle of green flatsedge (Cyperus virens) in the local stand of herbaceous vegetation in the Pineywoods loblolly pine-water oak-American holly flatwoods forest described herein. In the Illustrated Flora of East Texas Diggs et al. (2006) showed and mapped 19 species of flatsedge as occurring in the small Texas county of Liberty. Green flatsedge is one of the more common Cyperus species growing within the Big Thicket of the Texas Pineywoods. Liberty County, Texas. February.
53. Plumes in the pines- Panicles of bentawn plumegrass (Erianthus contortus) growing on the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly flatwoods forest featured here. The Illustrated Flora of East Texas (Diggs et al., 2006) put Erianthus in with an expanded sugarcane genus (Saccharum spp.) and renamed bentawn plumegrass S. brevibarbe var. contortum. Diggs et al. (2006) listed and mapped four former Erianthus species as being in the Pineywoods, including Liberty County, Texas (county where these photographs were taken). Correll and Johnston (1979) in Manual of the Vascular Plant of Texas, still the statewide "bible" of plant taxa, listed three Erianthus species for this "neck of the woods".
Erianthus species are some of the largest grasses native to the Pineywoods. E. contortus is probably the most common of these. Liberty County, Texas. February, hard-grain/shatter stage of phenology.
54. Beauty in the little things- Closeups of spikelets in the panicles of bentawn plumegrass shown immediately above. Liberty county, Texas. February, hard grains were shattering rapidly (lucky photographer preserved this lively scene for generations of grassmen).
55. Holly in the stand- Deeper inside the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly stand of flatwoods featured herein (and shown repeatedly above) American holly was becoming the local dominant tree species. Shrub-sized woody plants with persistent green leaves (foreground understorey) included young yaupon, water oak saplings, and American holly saplings and seedlings. Whereas tolerance rating for loblolly pine is Intolerant (Fowells, 1965, p. 366; Wenger, 1984; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol 1, p. 505) and water oak is Intolerant (Fowells, 1965, p. 630; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol. 2, p. 703) , American holly is Very Tolerant which is the same as American beech, sugar maple, and flowering dogwood (Wenger, 1984).
In absence of fire, windthrow, logging, and other disturbances (natural or anthropogenic) American holly (or other Very Tolerant species in the Big Thicket like American beech and southern magnolia) eventually become dominant as development of forest vegetation reaches climax. That phenomenon was shown in this photograph where the only seedlings present were those of American holly.
The largest and foremost trunk (right foreground; smooth bark) was a nice, shaply specimen of American holly. This specific plant was used below to describe its species, including another view of this same bole. The medium-sized liana growing up the American holly was some species of grape (Vitis sp.).
Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
56. "Hollyer" Pineywoods- On one local part of the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly dominated stand shown and described above, American holly was becoming the climax dominant tree species. Saplings of American holly were more common than those of water oak and the only seedlings were those of American holly. There were no saplings (only pole-size trees) of loblolly pine, the tree which clearly dominated the canopy (with water oak as the local associate species) at this subclimax stage. Yaupon, the overall community dominant of a lower woody layer, was common and shared this layer with saplings of water oak and both saplings and seedlings of American holly as was just remarked.
The adult American holly was the same individual whose trunk (with grape vine) was featured in the slide immediately above.
Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
57. Happy holly happenings- Regeneration (from seed) of American holly on floor of a subclimax loblolly pine-water oak forest. A young sapling of American holly represented the future generation of the climax dominant of this Pineywoods forest range. Yaupon holly, an individual of which was behind the featured holly sapling, was the overall dominant of a lower woody layer. American holly, a Very Tolerant tree species, had successfully reproduced even with this competition. The only herbaceous species was longleaf woodoats.
Another photograph of a small American holly sapling was presented below to show details of holly leaves.
The was the same stand of loblolly pine-water oak-American holly-yaupon-longleaf woodoats-bulrush-flatsedge Big Thicket flatwoods forest as featured above. Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect.
58. Dynasty in the making- This large, symetrical American holly and its progeny (ranging from seedlings to small saplings) were the climax tree species and future dominant of a loblolly pin-water oak-American holly-yaupon holly- longleaf woodoats-bulrush forest range community. American holly is regarded as Very Tolerant (Wenger, 1984) so that in absence of disturbances (eg. repeated forest fires, forest harvests) the Intolerant loblolly pine (Fowells, 1965, p. 366; Wenger, 1984; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol 1, p. 505) and Intolerant water oak (Fowells, 1965, p. 630; Burns and Honkala, 1990, Vol. 2, p. 703) will be succeeded by American holly. Successful regeneration of holly and absence of reproduction bf loblolly pine was shown in these two photographs. Numerous young plants of yaupon were also present.
Besides showing regeneration of American holly, these two slides provided views of a mature American holly showing crown shape and branching pattern typical of this climax hardwood (angiosperm) species. Note that limbs and branches of the holly extended lower on the crown than did those of surrounding loblolly pine and water oak and that, overall, the crown of the holly was substantially larger and fuller than those of the two current dominants of the subclimax flatwoods forest.
Liberty County, Texas. February.
59. Heir-apparent up close- Trunk of a mature American holly, the hardwood species that was successionally ascending to climax dominance with successful reproduction in shade of the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly Pineywoods forest. Another view of this same trunk was presented above (complete with the same grape vine).
Extent of shading of forest floor was also typical and indicative of a lower-layer forest environment in which only Toleranmt and Very Tolerant species could regenerate.
Liberty County, Texas. February.
.
60. Tale of trauma with a position to teach- For reason(s) unknow to the photographer this sapling of American holly was leaning to the stage of being nearly "flat".In spite of such posture the young tree was otherwise "alive and well". The first slide of this sapling provided a better composite view than if it had been vertical like it should have been. The second photograph was a view of branches and leaves on this flattened sapling. Spiney margins of holly leaves were presented to rangemen and foresters unfamilar with this species.
Liberty County, Texas. February.
61. Shinny holly leaves against a background of pine straw- Another small sapling (or large seedling) of American holly (Ilex opaca) growing in shade of loblolly pine, water oak, and its parent which was the large, symmetrical adult holly introduced above. Another living bit of evidence as to the Very Tolerant rating of American holly as well as an example of leaves of this species. Leaves of American holly are vriable in shape, but the margins have spines and are usually scalloped. Leaf blades are shiny green "on top" (upper surface) and pale underneath.
This small tree was in the same flatwoods forest stand as shown and described above.
Liberty County, Texas. February.
62. Yaupon or yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria)- Yaupon is one of the most aggressive shrubs in the understorey of the various pine and oak-pine types of the eastern deciduous forest in southeastern North America. It is usually not a dominant shrub in advanced stages of forest succession, but disturbances like logging (and subsequent regeneration methods) shift competitive advantage to this rapidly spreading, evergreen scrub holly allowing it to become a major brush species on regenerating forests and transitory forest ranges. The individual shown here had persisted late into the rotation of a loblolly pine forest.
International Paper Company, Harrison County, Texas. May.
10247 and 10248.
Girls' time- Flowers at peak-bloom stage on a female yaupon. Yaupon is a dioecious species. Details of a female plant in full bloom were presented.
International Paper Company, Harrison County, Texas.April.
63.Yaupon leader- Leaves and fruits (drupes) of yaupon. Yaupon is dioecious. The drupes are a favored food of numerous species of songbirds and even furbearers like coons. Browse value of yaupon is often rated as good for deer and fair for livestock though some dispute this. Heavy livestock grazing early in the forest rotation is often an effective means of yaupon control. International Paper Company, Harrison County, Texas. January.
64. Longleaf wood oats (Uniola sessiliflora)- This is one of the more common and important grass species in the shortleaf pine and pine-oak forests. It responds quickly with vigorous growth and reproduction to clearcutting and thinning operations in these forest cover types. Red River County, Texas. July.
65. Loblolly pine flatwoods- Example of the "pure" cover type of loblolly pine (SAF 82) made up this flatwoods forest community in the Big Thicket. Young, second-growth loblolly pines comprised the entire canopy (crown) layer while yaupon made up the lower woody layer and giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida) comprised most of the herbaceous layer. Perennial grasses such as longleaf woodoats and grasslike plants like cottongrass bulrush and green flatsedge which were common on adjacent and close proximity forests of loblolly pine-hardwood cover type (SAF 88) were much less dense on this forest range stocked with younger (smaller) trees. On local areas most disturbed by forest harvest activities there were some individuals of broomsedge and bushy beardgrass with fewer plants of longleaf woodoats and even density of bentawn plumegrass. While there were widely scattered water oaks stocking of this species was so slight that this forest was a loblolly pine cover type.
Selective (uneven-aged) harvest had taken place on this forest three or four years earlier. Hence, pioneer establishment of the giant ragweed and subsequent release of yaupon.
Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 88 (Loblolly Pine). Biotic community in the system of Brown et al. (1998) would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
66. Not sharing much- Stand of young loblolly pine on a flatwoods form of Big Thicket Pineywoods resulted in a nearly exclusionary crop, a single-species stand, with almost complete canopy cover of this shade-intolerant subclimax species. Yaupon had developed into a lower woody layer that was sporadic ranging frrom nearly absent to local heavy cover/dense shoots (as in the second of these two slides). Major grass overall was longleaf woodoats though it was absent from local areas of more extreme disturbance. Broomsedge and bushy bluestem were present (some shoots were visible in these and the preceding photograph) on the more seriously disturbed areas, but their cover and density could be described as "few and far between". Plants of bentawn plumegrass were even more uncommon.
Loblolly pines of about all one size (poles) and evidence of high degree of disturbance of soil surface indicated that the clearcutting method of regeneration had been used in silvicultural treatment. This was more obvious int the second of these two photographs. The largest tree in second photograph (right midground) was a water oak that had been spared in the recent clear-cutting operation because it was of no value for pulp or poles (ie. a trash tree). It presence and that of scattered water oak seedlings indicated that this was a subclimax loblolly pine-hardwood forest cover type (SAF 82) maintained by silviculture as a loblolly pine forest type (SAF 88).
Liberty County, Texas. February, late hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 88 (Loblolly Pine). Biotic community in the system of Brown et al. (1998) would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
67. Inside the loblolly pine stand- Interior of a single-species stand of young (pole-size) loblolly pine. Yaupon formed a sporadic woody understorey or lower woody (shrub) layer. Otherwise this vegetation was loblolly pine cover type (SAF 82) of an industrial or commercial forest where maximum financial return from the forest resulted from establishment and maintenance of single-species stands (= populations) of loblolly pine. In other words, this was a "rough" form of a loblolly pine planation established by natural regeneration. This form of silviculture (clearcutting method) produced denser stands of loblolly pine with more shade and therefore less herbaceous vegetation, especially less cover and lower density of grasses and grasslike plants, for grazing animals. Larger-size clearings and greater disturbance with more bare soil did, however, create better habitat for pioneer species like giant ragweed and this resulted in superior habitat for some kinds of wildlife like bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus).
Presence of saplings of water oak was proof that this was a loblolly pine-hardwood cover type (SAF 88) maintained as the more "pure" loblolly pine forest type (SAF 82) as an economic forest crop (ie. pine wood was more valuable than that from oak in the current market). This loblolly pine stand was in close proximity to the loblolly pine-water oak-American holly forest displayed and discussed above.
Yaupon was common and formed a lower woody layer. Dwarf palmetto was also present though mostly as isolated plants. There was less longleaf woodoats, broomsedge and bushy bluestem, bentawn plumegrass, cottongrass bulrush, and sedges and flatsedges than on the nearby loblolly pine-hardwood (water oak and American holly) forest. The most common herbaceous plant on this recently harvestly forest was giant ragweed.
Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Classification units of this forest range vegetation were presented in the two immediately preceding photo captions.
68. Loblolly pine-dominated backwater forest- Another form or subtype(s) of loblolly pine forest range (though one with minimal grazing and browsing resources) in the Pineywoods Region is that (those) that develop on land having ponded water for prolonged periods though not for periods of time consistent with those of swamps. In fact, the common name of loblolly comes from the condition known as a loblolly, a term referring to a mudhole or deep mud puddle, which is an ideal edphic condition for this species (Harlow et al., 1979, p. 93).
This is an exterior view of a loblolly pine-dominated forest that developed on a backwater of the San Jacinto River. Hardly visible on disturbed, bare soil in foreground are many pine seedlings indicative of extensive regeneration of the dominant tree species.Bare limbs and branches are those of water oak, overcup or swamp white oak, and black gum (= black tupelo), the associate species. This forest range vegetation would have to be described as a loblolly pine-mixed hardwood-dwarf palmetto forest. It was another form or variant of flatwoods forest.
Montgomergy County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South While this backwater forest was definitely not a swamp like cypress or tupelo it was at least a seasonal wetland and perhaps should be interpreted as part of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al. (1998) in what could be called a Pine-Hardwood Series (of say, number 223.15). Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
69. Next crop of the dominant native and a naturalized alien- At the edge (exterior) of the backwater Pineywoods forest introduced immediately above numerous large seedlings of loblolly (midground) illustrated regeneration by sexual reproduction of this conifer that was dominant in this forest range community. Although both loblolly pine and water oak are rated as Intolerant and subclimax (discussed above for a loblolly pine-water oak-American holly flatwoods forest), on this river backwater wetland these two tree species were climax dominants due to natural protection from severe fire and/or as an edaphic climax. Overcup oak and black tupelo were associate species.
The green leaves in background were those of yaupon holly which comprised a lower woody or shrub layer. Dwarf palmetto (none present in this photograph) formed a second shrub lower in height than the yaupon. (These two lower woody layers of vegetation were presented in the immediately succeeding slide.) At local scale there were sapling- and pole size trees of water oak, overcup oak, and blackgum (indicative of regeneration of these hardwood species later than loblolly pine in this sere) that formed a second tree layer. This was not consistent throughout this vegetation.
The large cespitose grass in foreground was a specimen of Vaseygrass (Paspalum urvillei), an introduced or agronomic forage species that is now naturalized throughout the Pineywoods of Texas and Louisiana. Over its much of its naturalized range Vaseygrass is a highly productive, welcome addition to the often sparse herbaceous understorey of the Pineywoods region. Vaseygrass was dealt with in the chapter, Introduced Forages, under Grasslands.
Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South While this backwater forest was definitely not a swamp like cypress or tupelo it was at least a seasonal wetland and perhaps should be interpreted as part of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al. (1998) in what could be called a Pine-Hardwood Series (of say, number 223.15). Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
70. Interior of backwater loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods-palmetto flatwoods forest- Inside look at the forest range vegetation introduced in the preceding two photographs. This "photo plot" provided a nearly comprehensive sample of the species composition of Pineywoods pine-hardwoods forest. There was no regeneration of the Intolerant loblolly pine beneath canopy of pine, water oak, overcup oak, and black tupelo in contrast to "doghair" stands of seedlings at edge or exterior of this stand as shown above. Saplings and pole-size trees of water, overcup oak and, to lesser extent, black tupelo were present indicating that these hardwood species had regenerated later than loblolly pine in seral development of this forest vegetation. Younger trees of these woody angiosperms did not form a continuous lower tree layer, but this vegetational strata was frequently present. Dwarf palmetto and yaupon made up two lower shrub layers in this vegetation.
Two saplings in foreground were overcup oak (left) and water oak (right).
Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of the San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South While this backwater forest was definitely not a swamp like cypress or tupelo it was at least a seasonal wetland and perhaps should be interpreted as part of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al. (1998) in what could be called a Pine-Hardwood Series (of say, number 223.15). Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
71. Structure and species composition of backwater loblolly pine-mixed hardwoods forest- Two views of lower layers of vegetation in a seasonal wetland forest of loblolly pine, water oak, overcup oak, black tupelo, yaupon, and dwarf palmetto. Large trunk was loblolly pine. On-going regeneration of palmetto was obvious from numerous seedlings of this shrub (eg. in front of pine trunk). Herbaceous species were absent from forest floor which was covered with leaves of tree species.
Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of the San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Given published biotic communities in the system of Brown et al. (1998) the closest designation would have to be interpreted as the Pine Series (123.12) of Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest although the Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) is closest in name. There should be a Brown et al. (1998) biotic community of Hardwood-Pine Series under Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest. South While this backwater forest was definitely not a swamp like cypress or tupelo it was at least a seasonal wetland and perhaps should be interpreted as part of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest (223.1) of Brown et al. (1998) in what could be called a Pine-Hardwood Series (of say, number 223.15). Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
72. Twixt the pines- Among large loblolly pine dwarf or swamp palmetto made up a lower shrub layer (lower than yaupon which constituted another shrub layer) throughout a backwater flatwoods forest. Also below the older (larger) and more scattered pines, water and overcup oak (with occasional black tupelo) formed a discontinuous lower tree layer.
Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of the San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. Various units of forest range vegetation were listed in preceding photo captions.
73. Loblolly Pine-Mixed Hardwood Wet Forest- Loblolly pine is the most common and economically important pine in east Texas. It often grows on well-drained soils, but it is also the Pinus species best adapted to wet, even ponded, sites in the Pineywoods. On this regenerated second-growth forest loblolly pine is the dominant species but shares the forest with numerous associated angiosperm species including water oak, swamp chestnut oak, white oak, and sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) in the overstory with an understory limited to a shrub layer of the small American holly (Ilex opaca) and a lower layer of pine seedlings with sedges and rushes. Liberty County, Texas. Vernal aspect, May. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). Forest cover type is best described as SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood), but it has elements of SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998), but in location of their Pine Series. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
74. Loblolly Pine-Oak Hardwood Forest in Texas Pineywoods- On this wet, often ponded, site loblolly pine is co-dominant with numerous hardwood species including cherrybark oak (Quercus falcata var. pagodifolia), water oak, swamp chestnut oak, white oak, water hickory or bitter pecan (Carya aquatica), and sweet gum. The woody understory consist largely of regenerating species of the dominants just listed. Herbs consist of sedges, rushes, and scattered small individuals of the native bamboo (Arundinaria gigantea). Liberty County, Texas. Vernal aspect, May. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). Appears to be a transition or "hybrid" between SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood) and SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Oak-Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998), but in region of their Pine Series. South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
75. White umbrella sedge or white-top sedge (Dichromenta latififolia)- The striking bright corolla of this member of the Cyperaceae has prompted wild flower enthusiasts to regard this grass-like plant as a "wild flower". It is restricted to wet open habitats as an understory to the more open loblolly pine-hardwood forests forms growing on poorly drained sites like that seen immediately above. Hardin County, Texas. May.
Although loblolly pine is well-adapted to wet soils (as suggested by the designation of "loblolly" in reference to deep mud hole or large mud puddle) is also occupies and even dominates less moist sites. On moist, but well-drained upland habitats throughout the extensive, eastern deciduous forest region loblolly pine frequently grows with various associated species. The Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) explained that for the Loblolly Pine-Hardwood forest cover type (SAF 82) there is a "spectrum of moisture regimes and sites" with hardwood species varying according to these gradients. White oak is one of the more widespread component hardwood species on direr upland sites. Throughout much of the Pineywoods white oak is a major--often dominant--species on various forest cover types including shortleaf pine as well as loblolly pine.
Forests of white oak and shortleaf pine (with associated species) were treated later on in this chapter.
Natural vegetation of an upland (well-drained) forest subtype that was composed of white oak and loblolly pine was presented and described immediately below. This "vegetational sampler" was typical of the interrupted or variously scattered forest communities in the southcentral portion of the Oak-Pine Forest Region in which loblolly pine serves to charactrize this transition from Oak-Hickory Region to the Oak-Pine Region (Braun, 1950, p. 259, 278-279).
76. Upland loblolly pine-white oak forest- Composite view of an upland Pineywoods forest above a small stream in which loblolly pine and white oak were do-dominants of the the canopy layer with progressively lower vegetational layers formed by sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana) as a lower tree layer; yaupon holly as a shrub layer; Walter's greenbriar (Smilax walteri), some species of grape (Vitis sp.), and rattan or Alabama supplejack as multi-layer (ground to canopy) shrubs; and a sparse-barely present herb layer made up mostly of longleaf woodoats. Leavaes of tree and shrub species covered the ground level (soil surface) to such degree as to exclude most herbaceous species, including individuals of longleaf woodoats (generally the dominant herb). The small tree with green-tinged, smooth bark and arching over the stream (lower right corner) and the two two smaller trees on the opposite (left) bank were individuals of sweetbay. A woody shoot of grape was in center foreground. The green zone of vegetation was produced by green leaves of the evergreen yaupon.
Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Forest and Range Ecosystem (Garrison et al., 1977) was either FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem) or FRES 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). Either way Kuchler unit was K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Not a good fit in the biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998) has closest was Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) of the Cold Termperate Forest whereas this vegetation was clearly in the Warm Temperate Forest, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) for which there was not an Oak-Pine Series. Braun (1950, 1950, ps. 259-279) extended the Oak-Pine Region to the Coastal Plain which would include the Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
77. Up and above a "crick"- Stand of loblolly pine and white oak on an upland site immediately above a small creek in Pineywoods of east Texas. Vertical view of the same forest introduced in the immediately preceding photograph (and from the same-- though closer-in-- vantagepoint) to better show structure and layering of this forest range vegetation. Woody vines of grape and smaller ones of rattan were in foreground. Limb in upper right corner was of sweetbay, the smaller tree species that constituted a lower tree layer of this forest community.
Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Forest and Range Ecosystem (Garrison et al., 1977) was either FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem) or FRES 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). Either way Kuchler unit was K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Not a good fit in the biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998) has closest was Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) of the Cold Termperate Forest whereas this vegetation was clearly in the Warm Temperate Forest, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) for which there was not an Oak-Pine Series. Braun (1950, 1950, ps. 259-279) extended the Oak-Pine Region to the Coastal Plain which would include the Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
78. Lumberman's view of a loblolly pine-white oak upland forest- Structure and species composition of an upland white oak-loblolly pine form or subtype of loblolly pine-hardwood dominance type. Larger trunks in both photographs are loblolly pine. Ph;otographed immediately following heavy rain shower so bark over some long strip-line areas of pine trunks was darker. Sweetbay formed an interrupted second tree layer. These were present as smaller, shorter trees (large saplings or pole-size: two in front of and to left of foremost pine in first slide; whitish trunk in foreground of second slide). An upper shrub (lower woody) layer comprised of yaupon was not distinct in these slides, but was shown in the six slides of immediately succeeding three sets of slides. Ground surface was covered with mulch or duff layer formed from shed leaves of all species. There was a very sparse understorey made up mostly of Walter's greenbriar that was more shrub than herb. A very sparse, intermittent herbaceous layer was composed mostly of longleaf woodoats (an individual of this species was to immediate left and upslope of the sweetbay in foreground of second slide). There were even more scattered individuals of some unidentifiable Carex species.
Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Forest and Range Ecosystem (Garrison et al., 1977) was either FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem) or FRES 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). Either way Kuchler unit was K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Not a good fit in the biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998) has closest was Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) of the Cold Termperate Forest whereas this vegetation was clearly in the Warm Temperate Forest, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) for which there was not an Oak-Pine Series. Braun (1950, 1950, ps. 259-279) extended the Oak-Pine Region to the Coastal Plain which would include the Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
79. Ground level view of a lobolly pine-white oak upland forest- Species make-up and layer arrangement of an upland loblolly pine-mixed hardwood forest was shown to good advantage. This forest community was in the unique Big Thicket portion of the Pineywoods and was featured in this segment of discussion devoted to loblolly pine. Loblolly pine is typically a subclimax stage of forest in the vast eastern deciduous forests of North America. Successional status of white oak varies considerably.
Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Forest and Range Ecosystem (Garrison et al., 1977) was either FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem) or FRES 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). Either way Kuchler unit was K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Not a good fit in the biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998) has closest was Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) of the Cold Termperate Forest whereas this vegetation was clearly in the Warm Temperate Forest, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) for which there was not an Oak-Pine Series. Braun (1950, 1950, ps. 259-279) extended the Oak-Pine Region to the Coastal Plain which would include the Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
80. Shrubs beneath the pine and oak- Yaupon or yaupon holly made up a shrub layer in the upland loblolly pine-white oak dominated (canopy or cover dominance) forest that had developed along a small stream in the Big Thicket portion of Texas' Pineywoods. This specific forest stand was shown and described in detail above and below.
Liberty County, Texas. February. Various classification units of this forest vegetation were presented in photo captions herein.
81. Walk through the upland woods- A series opf three photographs taken from about the same angle presented structure and species composition of vegetation in an loblolly pine-white oak-sweetbay-liana-yaupon- longleaf woodoats upland forest in the Big Thicket portion of the Texas Pineywoods. This "photo stroll" centered on a large white oak (largest tree trunk) near center of photographs. The bark on this old and still alive white oak had sloughed off in patches which were accentuated by a heavy rain moments before this series of photographs was taken.
Smaller, shorter trees were sweetbay which made an interruped lower tree layer.Yaupon formed a shrub layer throughout. A "top-to-bottom" (ground-to-crown canopy) shrub layer consisted of grape, rattan or Alabama supplejack, and Walter's greenbriar. Leaves of all species produced a ground cover layer so thick that there were very few herbaceous species. The most common herb was the perennial grass, longleaf woodoats.
Liberty County, Texas. February, later hibernal aspect. Forest and Range Ecosystem (Garrison et al., 1977) was either FRES 14 (Oak-Pine Forest Ecosystem) or FRES 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). Either way Kuchler unit was K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Not a good fit in the biotic community classification of Brown et al. (1998) has closest was Oak-Pine Series (122.14) of Northeastern Deciduous Forest (122.1) of the Cold Termperate Forest whereas this vegetation was clearly in the Warm Temperate Forest, Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) for which there was not an Oak-Pine Series. Braun (1950, 1950, ps. 259-279) extended the Oak-Pine Region to the Coastal Plain which would include the Warm Temperate Forest and Woodland (123), Southeastern Deciduous and Evergreen Forest (123.1) of Brown et al. (1998, p. 38). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
82. Fire-scarred forest veteran- An old white oak on a loblolly pine-white oak dominated upland forest bore testimony to the frequency of past fires. As a general rule, fire in the hardwood-pine cover types of the North American or eastern deciduous forests selects for greater proportions (crown cover, density, dominance, etc.) of pine rather than hardwood species such as the various oaks and hickories. This is most true for the extremely fire-tolerant longleaf pine, but even less fire-tolerant pines like loblolly generally benefit at competitive expense of the angiosperm trees. Furthermore, susceptibility to fire is greater for seedlings, saplings, and small poles than adult hardwood trees. Once hardwoods become established and grow larger they are less susceptible to fire-damage and death.
The ole patriarch of this upland loblolly pine-hardwood forest had obviously been through several surface fires. Past surface fires had burned through the bark of this large white oak which, however, survived quite well as most of its cambium tissue had not been injured. White oak has a variable tolerance response, but is generally rated as Intermediate (in contrast to Intolerance of loblolly pine). White oak is somewhat more tolerant than loblolly pine to drought (Moderate-tolerant vs. Moderate, respectively) while loblolly pine is much more flood tolerant (Moderately vs. Intolerant of white oak) (Wenger, 1984, ps. 2-8). Frequent fire shifts the forest environment in favor of loblolly pine.
Leafy plants at base of the white oak were small individuals of yaupon. Sapling behind and to right of white oak was sweetbay, the major species of the lower tree layer.
Liberty County, Texas. February.
83. Walter's greenbriar, coral or red-bead greenbriar,, or sarsaparilla (Smilar walteri)- One of several Smilax species in the Pineywoods Region. This one generally prefers moist to wet habitats, including sandy soils along streams such as that in the loblolly pine-white oak-sweetbay-yaupon upland forest described here.
Liberty County, Texas. February.
84. Nitty gritty of Walter's greenbriar- Details of leaves and stems of Walter's greenbriar which is only one of various Smilax species in the eastern deciduous forest of North America. This was growing in the understorey of a loblolly pine-white oak-dominated upland forest that developed along a small stream in the Big Thicket.
Liberty County, Texas. February.
Agriculture in southeastern North America (the Southeast) has changed continuously-- often radically-- over the course of history. Without going back to pre-Columbian (prehistoric) times and Indian days and the colonial period it was sufficient to remark that much of what was known generally (and simplistically) as the Cotton Belt has been one of the continent's agricultural regions most changed by socioeconomic and biological forces. Where it was first the "precious stink of tobaccy" and later King Cotton "the southeastern sector" is now one of the most diverse agricultural regions in North America.
Probably nothing as so changed in the agriculture of the Old South as the shift from field, mostly row, crops to industrial forestry and, usually integrated with forest cropping, beef cattle production. Development of permanent pastures based on improved, introduced tropical and subtropical grasses like bermudagrass, bahiagrass, dallisgrass, and vaseygrass along with tall fescue and Kentucky bluegrass went side-by-side with scientific forest management and a sustainable forest industry producing wood for pulp, post, poles, naval stores, and about anything else imaginable.
Other agricultural changes that at first might appear to be unrelated to those of the old Cotton Kingdom were in reality direct "directing forces" in the diversified agriculture of the South that slowly "rose again". Development of a concentrated, intensively managed cattle-feeding industry in the Great Plains of Texas, Oklahoma, Colorado, New Mexico, and Kansas was one example. This post-World War II phenomenon provided a ready made market outlet for Okie feeder calves from Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, etc. while the surrounding wheat fields were pastures without peer for the Okie "threes and fours" which were to be the stockers not yet ready for "prime time" in the feedlots.
Development and ever-newer improvements in the Forestry and Agronomy of the South (including the Border States like Kentucky, Tennessee and southern Missouri) were joined with improvements in Range Management.
The following section presented in photograph and discussion some of the major parts of this integrated agriculture that was a region-wide form of agropastoralsilviculture long before such terms became popular or were even recognized as such.
Recall from the introduction to this section that Braun (1950) recognized nine sections of the eastern deciduous forest formation. Two of these comprise-- more or less-- the forests of the Southeast that include sizable components of pine (Pinus) species: 1) Oak-Pine Forest Region and 2) Southeastern Evergreen Forest Region. This part of the Southeast could be viewed conveniently as the "pineywoods" part of the eastern deciduous forest formation or "super-region", as indeed it has long been known in Texas. This has also been known traditionally as the Southern Pine Region. It is mostly this part of the Southeast, especially in less economically developed areas, in which industrial or commercial forestry is a-- often, the-- major industry and certainly the more important part of agriculture in general.
It was loblolly pine (Pinus taedna), including hybrids thereof, more than any other single species that literally revolutionized commercial forestry in the Southeast. Slash pine (Pinus elliottii) was the other major commercial conifer of this region, specifically the southeasternmost part including Florida and the Carolinas. In the more northern and western portions of the Southeast shortleaf pine (P. echinata) was the native species and it has remained the major commercial conifer in certain locations. The fourth native pine having some commercial value in industrial forestry is longleaf pine (P. palustris). Following logging of the virgin forest, the slower-growing (but often having the superior wood) longleaf pine was in most areas the least economical species for commercial wood production.
Shortleaf pine is the least likely of the major pines of the Southern Pine Region to suffer damage or death from ice storms that are only all too frequent especially in the more northern zones of the region. Slash pine is typically the most extensively damaged by ice storms. Ice damage also limits commercial production of longleaf pine, as does it's slow growth rate relative to loblolly and slash pine and silvicultural problems associated with propagation/planting. Slower growth rate is also a factor limiting the industrial production of shortleaf pine.
A good-- thorough but concise-- guide to the feasibility of the various pines for production in industrial forestry can be found in Fowells (1965) and Burns and Honkala (1990), the definitive reference on the silvics and silviculture of forest trees in North America. Wahlenberg (1960) and Schultz (1997) are probably the two comprehensive treatments of loblolly pine forestry. Another classic reference, whose name says just what it is (one hallmark of a classic), would have to be The Genetics and Breeding of Southern Pines (Dorman, 1976). The definitive authority on southern pine ranges and their management is Pearson et. al. (1987).
The following sequence showed the harvest of loblolly pine by the clearcutting silvicultural method and subsequent site preparation for the next pine crop. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine).
85. Landing in loblolly pine forest- A landing is the point to which logs, poles, pulpwood, etc. is brought for delivery to the mill. In this scene loblolly pine logs were skidded and loaded on the truck by a log self-loader operator. Miller County, Arkansas. July.
86. Skidding logs to the truck- Skidding (also called yarding or forwarding) is the hauling of logs, poles or so on to the landing which is the collection or loading point for transport of logs to the mill. A rubber tired-skidder brought loblolly pine logs to the landing for loading onto the logging truck. Miller County, Arkansas. July.
87. Loading logs with a self-loader- A knuckleboom loader mounted on the logging truck was being used to load logs on the truck for transport to the mill. A knuckleboom (= hydraulic loader) is a loader that swings when used for loading and has hydraulic controls that activate boom members (the tongs or jaws). Miller County, Arkansas. July.
88. Slash at the landing- Slash is the logger's term for the limbs, branches, tops, parts of roots, waste logs, etc. remaining on the land surface after harvesting saw timber, pulpwood, etc. It is the forestry equivalent of stubble, straw, stalks, etc. remaining on the soil of a farm field. In both cases this residue must be managed in preparation for planting the next crop. It can be beneficial in reducing soil erosion, adding organic matter, and protecting the new seedlings, but such trash can interfere with planting or seeding operations. Miller County, Arkansas. July.
89. Oak-hickory-pine forest after harvest of loblolly pine- Where the potential natural forest vegetation is a hardwood-pine cover type (ie. "pineywoods") pines are usually the designated or intended crop and the hardwoods are weed trees. Weed trees are any species of tree (or large shrub), and the individual plants of these species, that have little value (or their value is less than-- cannot offset-- their disadvantages); used especially when these woody weeds compete with the intended forest crop. This latter is known as crop tree, any individual tree or tree species chosen to be part of the future forest harvest.
Some weed trees grow even under the most intensive forest management practices. These weed trees must be controlled before the next tree crop can be planted. This is true from standpoint of both 1) competition to planted seedlings or seedings from pre-existing, established, and much larger trees (for light, water, soil minerals, etc.) and 2) operating planting equipment, movement of tree-planter, workers, and so on.
One of the major points of contention among conservationists involved management of weed trees. Foresters who favor less intensive forest management (especially less radical or disruptive silvicultural methods), wildlifers, some watershed experts, and lay people who enjoy the varying and seasonal color changes of the deciduous species want a higher proportion of hardwood species growing with the pines. Foresters who favor the more intensive management of industrial forests (eg. shorter rotations, higher degree of control of pathogens and insect pests, and generally "cleaner" or "neater" forests opt for fewer weed trees). Forests managed from the latter perspective are often plantations of one (or very few) species, especially pines, hence pine plantation. These monocultures (where there is one crop tree species such as loblolly pine) are literally tree farms. (This should not to be confused with the registered Tree Farm trade mark of the American Tree Farm System although some of these may be registered or generally comply with those guidelines). They are the forestry equivalent of the agronomic single species of field crop (corn, cotton, wheat).
As with every other form of commercial agriculture in industrialized democracies, market economics has consistently favored ever-increasing intensification of food and fiber production with the result that wood crops have been produced under more intensive foret management, especially tree breeding and silviculture. This has not been completely successful with any form of agriculture whether tree farming, fish farming, game bird farming, or broiler and pork production under total confinement systems, but this industrial agriculture has produced the most economical food and fiber for the consumer as she has continued to "shell out" less of her disposable income for food, clothing, lumber, and computer paper with each passing year.
More recently certain factors, both biological, chemical-physical, and socioeconomic, slowed the trend of increasing intensification of production, at least somewhat. Endangered species management, more emphasis on aesthetics and recreation, and less concern about price of goods and services may well create a demand in the market place of forest products (not just wood commodities) for a "New Forestry" or a "Forestry for the 21st Century". If consumers are willing to put their money where their mouth (and their vote) is and "play fair" by the rules of a democratic free market so as to pay for the increased cost of products and services in order to enjoy more "natural" forests, foresters and forest firms will rise to the occasion as they did in wise-use conservation for economically efficient wood production. If, on the other hand, the consumer is an irresponsible customer and seeks to be a free-rider and stupidly expects the forest products industry to continue providing economical wood products plus other forest amenities at the same prices (ie. the addded costs are paid entirely by the industry) the system will fail. Natural resources are not free goods; all who use them must pay a fair price. That is a fundamental rule of the woods. That is the system, economic and ecosystem.
Back to the weed trees: they must be removed for proper site preparation. Miller County, Arkansas. July. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine).
90. Site preparation- A small loblolly pine clear-cut with weed trees (hardwood species, mostly oak) removed. This was a portion of the pine-harvested forest with hardwoods left standing shown in the preceding slide. This part of the forest was in a later phase of site preparation for planting the next crop of loblolly pine. In this part of the "pine field" silvicultural scarification has been completed. Scarifiction in this usage means the physical removal of slash (or related debris) and competing plants (eg. weed trees, shrubs) and/or physical disturbance or disruption of the land surface as one of the practices in site preparation. Site preparation is the manipulation, usually limited in meaning to physical (manual or mechanized) and chemical treatment, of the site (the land) on which reforestation is to occur. Site preparation is the equivalent of seedbed preparation in production of field crops. Site preparation treatments include all those associated with scarification and readying of the soil surface for planting or seeding (eg. brush or weed tree control, disking, chopping, brush raking, tile drainage, terracing). These modifications to soil, land shape, slash (litter), and remaining plants are performed to improve microsite conditions in which the new trees will began their growth. The forest management objective is enhanced regeneration of the crop trees (recall definition from preceding slide caption).
The land seen here is not in the final stage of site preparation. Slash has been piled for burning, but the piles contained enough soil that combustion will be incomplete, and the soil will have to be redistributed back over the land. This procedure exposed soil to erosion but there was probably enough slash residue to prevent accelerated erosion. Such tillage of the soil can be beneficial (it was part of the scarification procedure) and is often essential for successful regeneratioin of species that evolved under disturbances like flooding (eg. coast redwoods) or fire (pines with serotinous cones like some lodgepole genotypes). This was explained in discussions of these species elsewhere in this publication.
Miller County, Arkansas. July. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem. K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine).
91. Proper site preparation- Appearance of a "field", the site, ready to be replanted to loblolly pine. This land is in the final state or last stage of site preparation. Replanting of loblolly pine seedlings will begin soon. Note the amount of "crop residue", slash, remaining on the soil surface. Erosion will be minimum with this residue covering the soil and acting as small "dams" or "windbreaks" to slow movement of water and wind that could carry soil particles. Also, this modifies the microenviornment where replanted conifers will grow and develop, thereby increaing the chances of regeneration of the crop trees (ie. improve the odds of making the next crop).
Hardwood tree and shrub species have already resprouted or germinated. This means that conifer seedlings will be in intense competition as soon as they are planted and/or germinate. Efficient regeneration of loblolly pine under these conditions will usually require some brush (weed tree) control either by herbicides or cattle-grazing. This was discussed below (and for several conifer species and different forest cover types such as the Sierra Nevada mixed conifer type).
In the case of grazing by cattle (as well as native whitetail deer of course) the stage of reforestation displayed in this slide was the start of transitory forest range, native plants on forestland that can (will) be used as forage and/or browse only as long as the forest canopy formed by crowns of trees (loblolly pine in this instance) does not close enough to prevent light from reaching lower layers of the vegetation. Once enough light is intercepted by the crowns of the ever-growning tree layer(s) --resulting in elimination of grazable or browsable layers-- the forest no longer produces native vegetation available for use by range animals. An understorey (understorey layers) capable of being used as forage and/or browse by wildlife or livestock no longer exist. The forest range is gone. It has been replaced by another seral stage or by the climax of that sere. In other words, such forest range is a stage or a series of stages in secondary plant succession that produces vegetation that can be consumed by grazers and/or browsers until it is evenutually replaced by climax or a higher seral stage that is incapable of producing feed for range animals. Stages in the development of forest vegetation that do produce such forage and/or browse are thus in transition to a closed-canopy forest. In other words, it is successional, sub-climax range that is transitory-- in a state of transition-- to more successionally advanced vegetation that lacks an understorey.
Transitory forest range is not permanent range. Some forest range types (eg. longleaf pine and parklike ponderosa pine forests) are permanent. A number of these were discussed throughout the Forests and Woodlands portion of this publication. Many of the forest ranges of the Southern Pine Region are transitory ranges. In these instances, such as the one shown in the next slide, man the forester facilitated succession or grew a disturbance climax that no longer had an understorey layer. Earlier generations learned from Plant Ecology (Weaver and Clements, 1938, ps.238, 271-273) that this was an example of human coaction, an advanced process in plant succession leading to stabilization.
Vernon Parish, Louisiana. July. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine).
92. Pine nursery- Nursery stock for artificial regeneration. In tree nursuries, fields such as the one shown here have seeds of the desired species planted in rows. Seedlings are allowed to reach heights of about 10-15 inches (maybe slightly more) then they are lifted and bound in bundles of a certain number (commonly 50 seedlings at this nursery). The seedlings are transported to the site (the "field") on which they are to be planted. Planting can be done by tractor-drawn implements (commonly called tree planters) or by hand using various tools such as tree-planting bars, hoedads, or spades. Bundles of seedlings (typically of several species) are packaged together and routinely shipped by surface mail, especially to small private landowners for reforesting relatively small acreages. Commercial lumber and pulp companies often have their own nurseries, of their own selected germ plasm.
This nursery field had both loblolly and shortleaf pine seedlings (growing in the center rows) and black locust and bois-d'arc or Osage orange (these latter two species visible at far left as the taller seedlings). This was a state forestry nursery funded by tax dollars and minimal prices for seedlings. It exist primarily to provide trees for replanting on private, non-commercial (ie. smaller) forest tracts.
Oklahoma Forestry Division, State Department of Agriculture. July
93. Young loblolly pine seedlings growing in a state forestry nursery- These trees will be sold at minimal (tax-subsidized) cost to private landowners for reforestation. This nursery stock method is the standard form of artificial regeneration for species of southern pines. (An erratic stand by standards of corn and cotton fields.)
Standard three and a half inch stockman's knife for scale.
Oklahoma Forestry Division, State Department of Agriculture. July.
94. Loblolly pine plantation- This is a forest planting neighboring on the area shown in the preceding photograph. It is a six to (at most) ten-year-old loblolly pine plantation. The pines were large enough that they were experiencing relatively little competition from weed trees, brushy shrubs, or grass. The pines were also large enough that there was not much forage and/or browse remaining in the plantation. Cover of loblolly pines, which had limbs to the ground, was so nearly complete that forest plants usable for forage and/or browse had been reduced nearly to point of exclusion by interception of light by the planted pines. The loblolly pines had grown enough to exclude light from the ground around them and little of the grazable/browsable understorey remained.
Here was an example of where man the manipulator of ecosystems accelerated the rate of secondary plant succession while producing a crop that could be characterized as a disturbance climax or a subclimax (Weavaer and Clements, 1938, p. 81, 86-88). This resulted in a marked degree of stabilization, the most advanced process in plant succession (Weaver and Clements, 1938, p. 234).
The Society of American Foresters (Helms, 1998) defined a plantation as "a stand composed primarily of trees established by planting or artificial seeding" and specified that "a plantation may have tree or understorey components that have resulted from natural regeneration" and that it "may be pure or mixed species, treated to have uniform or diverse structure and age classes". Most of the loblolly plantations like the one seen in this slide are monocultures with a single age class and one simultaneous harvest (ie. even--aged management with the classic pattern of clear-cutting).
Vernon Parish, Louisiana. July. Western Coastal Plains ecological section. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine).
95. Reproduction of loblolly pine by natural seeding- A dog-hair stand of loblolly pine developed on a road-cut from seeds in the soil seedbank and those newly shed by existing trees.
Silvicultural systems for production of loblolly pine vary but, as is the case for industrial forestry in general throughout the Southern Pine Region, commercial regeneration (silvicultural establishment of the next tree crop) and the major regeneration or reproduction method became the pine plantation sysem of even-aged clearcutting and replanting. Replanting of nursery stock (young tree raised in tree nurseries from seed) became established quite early in the development of scientific forestry in the Southeast because it provided the opportunity to use improved, faster-growing genotypes (including hybrids) as well as increasing chances of tree establishment and a future wood crop. Smith (1986, p. 372) explained that production of loblolly and slash pine by clearcutting and planting was "the most important American manifestation of the general use of this silvicultural method".
Loblolly pine does, however, reproduce readily from seed as shown in this photograph. This is even more the case when competing hardwood species are reduced by prescribed burning or mechanical site preparation (as was the inadvertant result of the road construction that eliminated all competing plants and exposed mineral soil). Loblolly pine has also been established by artificial aerial seeding, but this practice was discontinued and was replaced by planting nursery stock to get properly spaced trees of superior germ plasm.
Regeneration of loblolly pine from seed (naturally or artificially) results in stands of densities greater than those that are optimum for rapid tree growth and shorter rotations. It not only creates such dog-hair stands that pines are crowded and stunted, it also results in develop of a closed tree canopy early in development of vegetation and exclusion of an understorey capable of being used as transitory forest range.
Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana. July. Red River Alluvial Plain ecological section. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine).
96. Thinned out- Stand of loblolly pine thinned for optimum growth of individual trees and wood yield. Yaupon holly comprised a lower, second woody layer. Herbaceous understorey consisted of a diversity of grasses including especially longleaf woodoats, panicgrasses (Panicum and Dichanthium spp.), and paspalums (Paspalum spp. including the naturalized Vaseygrass) along with sedges (Carex and Cyperus spp.) and spikerushes (Eleocharis spp.).
Within a relatively short period (probably less than 10-15 years) this stand will become a closed canopy monoculture of plantation loblolly pine like that shown immediately below.
Hardin County, May, estival aspect. Pyric or anthropogenic variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) that would terminate in dominance by hardwood species. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
97.Loblolly forest at mature stage relative to harvest (mainly pulp wood)- Closed canopy forest that is totally devoid of understory. Stands of loblolly pine such as this essentially single-species stand are transitory range that is grazable/browswable only until the upperstory of trees closes thereby depriving understory layers (often even shrub stories) of light. Houston County, Texas.March, vernal aspect. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). Pyric or anthropogenic variant of K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) that would terminate in dominance by hardwood species. SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Southern Tertiary Uplands Ecoregion, 35e (Griffith et al., 2004).
98. Small clear-cut of loblolly pine like that pictured in previous slide- What slash is not used locally as fire wood following pole and/or pulp wood harvest will be burned and the site prepared for replanting which is typically artificial propagation (planting of nursery grown seedlings rather than natural regeneration by seeding from adjacent or scattered remaining trees). Liberty County, Texas. March. FRES No.13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem).K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest).SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine). Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
99. A loblolly pine plantation eight years following planting of seedlings in a clear-cut like the one immediately above— The plantation understory is being grazing by cattle as a means of biological control of the fiercely competitive weed tree, sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), as well as utilization of the native grasses that vary from climax Andropogon and Panicum species to the the threeawns or wiregrasses and crabgrasses (Digitaria spp.). Little bluestem and broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus) are the dominant grasses shown here. Native hickory and oak species have regenerated by both coppice sprouting and seedling emergence yet are less a brush problem than seral sweetgum.This illustrates that oak and hickory species are natural dominants of the climax and that the human inputs of forest management are essential to economically raise the crops of pines which are minor climax dominants relative to the hardwoods.Note preferencial grazing first of grasses and secondly of browsing on hardwoods. Pines have not been browsed. Loblolly pine transitory range.Weyerheuser-contracted crop.
LeFlore County, Oklahoma. May. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest) SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine) or SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). Ouachita Mountains- Athens Plateau Ecoregion, 36a (Woods et al., 2005).
100. Transitory forest range in a 10 to12 year-old hybrid loblolly pine plantation showing ungrazed understory that is tallgrass prairie of little bluestem, big bluestem, broomsedge bluestem, Indiangrass, and side-oats grama. Hardwood species like oaks, hickories, and sweetgum are totally absent due largely to previous heavy browsing by cattle.Weyerheuser trees.McCurtain County, Oklahoma. July. FRES No.13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Ecosystem). K-101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest). SAF 81 (Loblolly Pine) or SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). Pine Series of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Cretaceous Dissected Uplands Ecoregion, .35d (Woods et al., 2005).
101. Loblolly pine regeneration (and competition) in cut-over forest- Natural regeneration of loblolly pine from seed following clearcutting (even-aged regeneration method). The pines are in competition and face the threat of wild fire from the lush growth of native grasses including broomsedge bluestem (the most abundant grass), splitbeard bluestem, big bluestem, plus various species of Panicum, Paspalum, and Sporobolus.
102. Vulnerable to fire- Close-up view of a loblolly pine seedling in the cut-over forest shown immediately above. This silvic baby is about as vulnerable as a newborn lamb. The seedling was surrounded by broomsedge bluestem (the Andropogon species closest to it), splitbeard bluestem, little bluestem with dead herbage of Panicum and Paspalum species not far away. This new pine was produced by natural reproduction (seed production, germination, and emergence) and there are frequently too many such seedlings produced so that killing of the vast excess by fire is essential management for efficient, economical production of forest products. On this cut-over forest, however, regeneration was not excessive thus necessitating protection of the next cohort of loblolly pines from fire at this vulnerable stage of their life cycle.
Grazing by cattle (the kind of range animal most likely to consume grass and not browse on pines) would reduce the fuel load produced by grasses (and some grasslike plants and forbs)thereby reducing chances of wild fire that would eliminate the barely adequate stocking of loblolly pine. Grazing of such rank, dormant, and, in instance of broomsedge and splitbeard bluestems, unpalatable grasses at this stage of full plant maturity and dormancy is not feasible. Cattle will not graze such herbage as show here (at least not at levels of voluntary forage intake that would be profitable to cattlemen). Rather, grazing should have been done back when these herbaceous species were immature and less unpalatable (ie. get on top and stay on top of the potential fuel).
Harrison County, Texas. December.
103. Waiting to burn and die- A fine loblolly pine seedling in an ocean of grass herbage. Grass material was mostly from broomsedge and splitbeard bluestems, species of extremely low palatability. Getting loblolly pine to enough height to withstand a wild fire on this cut-over pine forest is "ify" and one time when even rangemen (if they done a forester's hardhat for a time) find common cause with that otherwise deplorable bruin, Smokey Bear.
The forest range shown here is in the heart of the loblolly pine region and to the west of longleaf pine forest. Thus, wise use of prescribed fire is not as (perhaps not) feasible. Grazing of this regenerating loblolly pine forest by beef cattle would be one of the best--if not the best--practices to maximize the chance of establishing the next crop of wood. Of course, grazing of unpalatable species like broomsedge and splitbeard bluestems has to begin when herbage is young and more acceptable to cattle. Cows and calves would be preferable to steers on low-quality feed such as that seen here because stocker cattle must achieve higher levels of individual performance to be profitable under the almost-always negative price structure (heavier cattle fetch lower prices per cwt.). See there, the ole range professor slipped in one of the Cardinal Principles of Range Management: Proper Kind and Class of Range Animal (in this case, class as to sex of animal).
Harrison County, Texas. December.
104. Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris)- Seedlings and young trees of longleaf pine are seen
here in at least four age classes. Longleaf pine is one of the most fire-tolerant
trees in North America. Natural and Indian-set fires contributed to persistence
of Pinus species in the deciduous
forests of eastern North America. This was particularly the case for longleaf
pine where fire maintained parklike forest of almost pure longleaf with
a grassy understory much like the case for the ponderosa pine forests
of western North America. In addition to reduction of a woody understory
(and thus likelihood of a crown fire) fire may have helped control southern
blister or fusiform rusts such as Cronartium fusiforme= C. quercuumf. ssp. fusiforme.
(In addition, longleaf pine is more resistant to fusiform rust than is
loblolly or slash pine [Baxter, 1943].) Fire has definitely been proven
to be useful in control of brown spot disease (Septoria
acicola) when longleaf is in the grass stage (Wright and Bailey, 1982,
ps. 369, 415). Fire cost the burnt grass stage longleaf a year's growth
because it consumes the needles (fire destroys the brown-spot spores in
the fallen leaves), but in absence of this fire the young longleaf trees
would die from brown-spot disease.
Winter burns at three year intervals result in doubling the growth of
longleaf. Longleaf pine is much more tolerant of fire than are loblolly
and slash pine. Natural fires at two to three year intervals maintained
longleaf whereas a reduced fire frequency results in loblolly and slash
pine becoming the dominant Pinus species. Absence of fire results in succession to the climatic climax
mixed pine-deciduous (= hardwood) forest. (Wright and Bailey, 1982, ps.
368-371). In other words, all the southern pine forest types are fire
types and this is most true for the longleaf pine type. Stand of young
longleaf pine in background. Hardin County Texas, May. FRES N0. 12 (Longleaf-Slash
Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-102 (Southern Mixed Forest, Seral Stages), SAF
70 (Longleaf Pine) of the Southern Yellow Pines.
105. The grass stage of longleaf pine- A longleaf pine seedling in the grass stage (front foreground) and a loblolly pine seedling of comparable age (behind the longleaf) shows conclusively why frequent firing will maintain longleaf pine instead of the more competitive loblolly pine. A surface fire will burn off the leaves of the longleaf seedling and set it back a year's growth, but the fire will kill the loblolly seedling. In absence of fire brown-spot would likely kill or retard growth of many young longleafs. The actual mechanism by which grass-stage longleaf survives is simple: the needles grow in a dense pattern around the terminal bud (apical meristem), which is the actively growing tissue of the seedling and whose hormones regulate growth of the tree, and protect it (and thus the seedling's life) from the heat or consumption by the flames. A most remarkable evolutionary adaptation for a desirable forest tree valuable for both its lumber and naval stores. Hardin County, Texas, May. FRES No. 12 (Longleaf-Slash Pine Forest Ecosystem), K-102 (Southern Mixed Forest, Seral Stages), SAF 70.
Organization note: more coverage of loblolly pine forest types are in a seperate chapter, Loblolly Pine.
Dispersed widely, though sometimes extensively, the eastern deciduous forest complex there are various forest cover types on wetlands. Most commonly these forested wetlands are swamps or riparian forests or woodlands. Swamp was defined by the Society of American Foresters (Helms, 1998) as "a tree- or tall shrub-dominated wetland, characterized by periodic flooding and nearly permanent subsurface water flow through mixtures of mineral sediments and organic materials, essentially without peat accumulation". Much of the wetland forest vegetation furnishes little or no herbage or woody material for forage and browse due to either absence of an understorey or nearly permanent water inundation. While such forests are of limited value (at best) as grazing land per se their vegetation is part of the overall range landscape and does provide water and shade for livestock; serves as sources of water, cover, and space as habitat factors for wildlife, contributes biodiversity to the general forest range ecosystem; and, probably most important of all, serves as essential watershed including the role of flood protection.
A short sample of these wetland forest types was provided below. Coverage began with a mesic bottom- or lowland forest with transition to a wetland forest that had periods when the land surface was not covered by water (swamps with usually flooded soils, but with temporary periods lacking surface water).
106. Growing by the backwater- Local slough in part of the Sulphur River drainage into Red River in southwest Arkansas. A bald cyrpess (Taxodium distichum) and considerable cover of water-elm or planertree (Planera aquatica) was growing at water's edge. Farther back from the water the dominant plant was the soft-wooded, fast-growing, and the shade-shunning sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) an angiosperm species with a tolerance rating of Intolerant (Wenger, 1984, ps.2-3). Bald cypress has a water-tolerance rating of Most Toolerant while sweetgum is Moderate Tolerant (Middleton, 1999. p. 146-147).
Miller County, Arkansas. Mid-July. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Bald Cypress Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series 223.11 in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community 223.1 of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Woods et al., 2004).
107. Upper end of a swamp- Sweetgum, water oak (Quercus nigra), and overcup oak (Q. lyrata) were major species at the outer edge of a bald cypress-overcup oak-water oak-sweetgum swamp in a backwater portion of the drainage of Sulphur River (part of the Red River system) in southwestern Arkansas. Dominant versus associate tree species varied among these three hardwood species from one local stand to the next. In the first slide of these three slides a huge sweetgum (left) and a large water oak (right) had an understorey of various shrubs including muscadine grape (Vitis rotundifolia); American hornbeam (known also as blue beech, ironwood, or musclewood; Carpinus caroliniana), and eastern hop-hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana). Interestingly, there were plants of both broadleaf woodoats (Uniola latifolia) and narrowleaf woodoats (U. sessilfolia) as a "broken" (sporadic) herbaceous layer.
The second and third slide were side-by-side views with the third slide being of vegetation off to the right side of the large overcup oak that was the "featured attraction" of the second slide. There were mature sweetgum and overcup oak in the left background of the second slide and eastern hop-hornbeam in the left margin. Wild yam (Dioscorea villosa) was growing at base and all around the trunk of the overcup oak in the second slide.
The third slide was of (or to) the right side of the overcup oak in slide two with wild yam, muscadine grape, Alabama supplejack, Virginia creeper, roundleaf green-brier (Smilax rotundifolia), and eastern hop-hornbeam around it. A sapling of Magnolia virginiana, known by such common names as sweetbay, swampbay, sweetbay magnolia, whitebay, laurel magnolia, and swamp magnolia, was to immediate right of the big overcup oak.
Miller County, Arkansas. Mid-July, estival aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 92 (Sweetgum-Willow [Water] Oak) in transition to SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community 223.1 of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Woods et al., 2004).
108. Just above a swamp- A small canebrake of native bamboo, usually called giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea), grew at slightly higher ground at outer edge of a bald cypress-water oak-overcup oak-sweetgum swamp on drainage of Sulphur River in southwest Arkansas. Leaves of sweetgum and eastern hop-hornbeam were in the foreground (upper right and left margin, respectively). The white trunk in background was a snag of what appeared to be a water oak. The dark trunk to right of snag was a large specimen of blue beech (= ironwood, musclewood, or American hornbeam). Roundleaf green-brier was well represented in this understorey.
In addition to the giant cane there were plants of both broadleaf woodlats and narrowleaf woodoats. No forbs to speak of.
This forest range community had developed on land just slightly higher than the bald cypress-mixedoak-sweetgum swamp.
Miller County, Arkansas. Mid-July, estival aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 92 (Sweetgum-Willow [Water] Oak) in transition to SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community 223.1 of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Woods et al., 2004).
109. Slightly higher ground- On land of slightly higher elevation than an adjoining bald cypress-water oak-overcup oak-sweetgum swamp a stand of mixed hardwoods-loblolly pine grew. The largest tree with light bark was a large sweetgum while its neighbor to the left was a big water oak. Both trees appeared to be a prime adulthood (at grand finale of their lives). A specimen of blue beech or American hornbeam was the pole-sized "warped" trunk to immediateleft of the water oak. The sapling with light bark in right midground was eastern hop-hornbeam. There was a woody shoot of muscadine grape and one of Alabama supplejack between the sweetgum and the eastern hop-hornbeam. Most of the lower green leaves and thin, short shoots in the foreground were those of American holly (Ilex opaca).
Miller County, Arkansas. Mid-July, estival aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 92 (Sweetgum-Willow [Water] Oak) in transition to SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community 223.1 of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Woods et al., 2004).
110. A little higher end- On ground lying at just a little elevation than an adjoining bald cypress-water oak-overcup oak-sweetgum swamp (background of second slide) there was a a stand of sweetgum, water oak, overcup oak, and loblolly pine. This forest vegetation was on a backwater slough area of the watershed of the Sulphur River in southwestern Arkansas. The immediately preceding slide/caption unit presented some of the larger trees and accompanying shrubs of this forest range vegetation. The two slides seen here presented more of that forest range community that was thriving on a"little higher ground".
The first slide had a young large pole-sized overcup in right foreground and a large "fully ripe" loblolly pine in right midground. A plant of American hornbeam or blue beech was to immediate left of the loblolly pine. Poision ivy and muscadine grape were present in vegetation seen in this first of these ntwo slides. A sparse undertorey over a bed of fallen leaves was typical of some local areas in this bottomland forest.
The second slide featured a big, straight-trunked water oak with a sapling of eastern hop-hornbeam to its immediate left. There were lianas of muscadine grape, Alabama supplejack, and roundleaf green-brier in foreground of this second slide. Trees in distant background were mostly those of water oak and a few bald cypress.
Tolerance to waterlogged soils was obviously a major adaptation for forest plants on this wet to swampy lowland forest, a wetland forest (at most locations). Loblolly pine is rated as Moderately Tolerant in its water tolerance rating while overcup oak rated Highly Tolerant (Middleton, 1999, p. 146). In spite of the common name, water oak was rated as Weakley Tolerant on the flood tolerance scale (Wenger, 1984, p.8). Among shrubs, eastern hop-hornbeam rated Intolerant and American hornbeam or blue beech was shown as Weakly Tolerant (Wenger, 1984, p. 8) or, according to Middleton (1999, ps. 146-147), Least Tolerant and Weakly Tolerant, respectively.
Presence of these large healthy trees on ground slightly above an adjoining swamp was consistent with these rating, but presence of large adults of some of thee same tree and shrub species was inconsistent with the flooding tolerance given in the preceding paragraph (see immediately below). Furthermore, individual trees all of these species grew beside bald cypress (Most Tolerant) on waterlogged (or near waterlogged) soil by water-filled sloughs in this forest.
Miller County, Arkansas. Mid-July, estival aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 92 (Sweetgum-Willow [Water] Oak) in transition to SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community 223.1 of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Woods et al., 2004).
111. Dry for now- A backwater slough on drainage of Sulphur River (a tributary of Red River) in southwestern Arkansas provided the habitat for a bottomland forest range dominated variously by bald cypress, water oak, overcup oak , and sweetgum with a shrub component of blue beech or American hornbeam, water-elm or planertree (Planera aquatica), and, on drier, more upland microsites (and with less cover and lower density) eastern hop-hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana) with an understorey herbaceous layer dominated by narrow plumegrass (Erianthus strictus)broadleaf woodoats (Uniloa latifolia) as the associate herbaceous species.
This forest community provided a good application of the concept of water or flooding tolerance. Some plant species (in the management groups of tree, shrub, grass, grasslike plant, forb) can survive under varying degrees of water saturation in soils. This physiological fact of plant life has been applied in ratings of various NorthAmerican tree and shrub species in regards to flooded soil conditions. Bald cypress received the water (flooding or water-saturation) tolerance rating of Most Tolerant whereas overcup oak has a flooding rating of Highly Tolerant, with water oak and sweetgum having water tolerance ratings of Weakly Tolerant (Wenger, 1984, p. 8; Middleton, 1999, p. 146). Water-elm or planertree was rated Most Tolerant while blue beech or American hornbeam had a rating of Weakly Tolerant and eastern hop-hornbeam had a rating of Least Tolerant (Middleton, 1999, p. 146-147).
The woody portrubances appearing like wooden stakes or "short fence posts" in fore- and midground of the second slide were bald cypress "knees" (pneumatophores, as treated in the slide/caption set following the next such set or two slide/caption units below).
This wetland forest range was an unusual example of swamp range. Swamps, such as those bald cypress or water tupelo, are typically covered with water (often to depths of one to two or more feet) all or most of the year such that there is no herbaceous cover or, often, no understorey at all. In contrast, the wetland forest presented here had soil that was devoid of surface water for periods of varying durations at certain times of the year. These periods when soils were not "waterlogged" (not saturated or without soil-moisture levels greater than field capacity) permitted luxurant growth of narrow plumegrass, a large warm-season grass (Andropogoneae tribe). This cover of narrow plumegrass was shown to greater advantage in the immediately succeeding slide/caption set...
Miller County, Arkansas. Mid-July. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A co-dominant variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Bald Cypress Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series 223.11 in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community 223.1of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Woods et al., 2004).
112. At pond's edge- In a backwater slough of the Sulphur River (tributary of Red River) in southwestern Arkansas one of the natural vegetational communties was a wetland forest of bald cypress, water oak, overcup oak, and sweetgum with an herbaceous understorey dominated by narrow plumegrass (broadleaf woodoats was the associate herbaceous species) and a shrub layer of water-elm, blue beech or American hornbeam, and, at lesser density and cover or drier microsites, eastern hop-hornbeam. Narrow plumegrass was featured prominently in the first of these two slides and also was visible (though at lower cover and density) in foreground of the second slide. Water-elm was represented by woody plants with conspicuously bent trunks (left background, first slide; left-center mid- to background, second slide).
Tree species seen in these two slides, that presented the interior structure and species conmposition of this wetland forest, included sweetgum (huge tree with "dog-leg" trunk in mid- to background of first slide), bald cypress (large, straight, light-colored trunk to immediate right of the crooked-trunk sweetgum, first slide; three trunks to right of left-leaning water-elm, second slide), and water oak (two large trunks featured in second slide; large trunk behind shrubby growth and to right of bald cypress, in the first slide).
Shurbs included blue-beech or American hornbeam (right margin, top slide; left and right margins, second slide) and eastern hop-hornbeam (left margin, foreground in second slide).
It was explained in the immediately preceding caption that this wetland forest was an atypical swamp in that the land surface remained free of surface water for periods of time longer than in more typical bald cypress or water tupelo swamps. The most economically and biologically important aspect of this periodic "dryness" (soils drier than at saturation; land surface not covered or inundated by water) was that such edaphic conditions permitted growth of mesophytic herbaceous species such as narrow plumegrass, a native, rank-growing, perennial, warm-season grass of the bluestem tribe (Andropogoneae). This was shown to expecially good advantege in the first of these two slides. Narrow plumegrass overwhelmingly dominated the herbaceous layer of this wetland forest range. Broadleaf was the associate herbaceous (and grass) species on this wetland forest range.
Downed, dead limbs in foreground of the second slide depicted the onset of senescence (end of individual tree life cycle) in these mature, adult water oaks.
Miller County, Arkansas. Mid-July. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A co-dominant variant ofde) K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Bald Cypress Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series 223.11 in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community 223.1of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b Woods et al., 2004).
113. Dried up for a while; will trip you up anytime- Part of a backwater slough in drainage of Sulphur River (tributary of Red River) in southwest Arkansas that was the habitat for a wetland forest of bald cypress, water oak, overcup oak, and sweetgum with an herbaceous understorey dominated by narrow plumegrass and with broadleaf woooats as associate herbaceous species. The two major shrub species were blue beech or American hornbeam and water-elm or planertree. In the foreground of this view--and in front of a bald cypress (right-center midground), overcup oak (left midground), water oak and with sweetgum at left and right margins--there were between 40 and 50 "knees" of bald cypress extending to heights of over two feet from the leaf-covered surface of a locally ponded habitat.
Bald cypress "knees" are the textbook example of pneumatophores which were defined by the Society of American Foresters (Helms, 1998) as "a specialized aerial outgrowth from the submerged roots of certain swamp or estaurine trees...". Ostensibly and, in most instances, actuality, pneumatophores assist the plant (bald cypress, in this case) in obtaining adequate intake of oxygen when the soil has less than required amounts of available oxygen. Formation of "knees" is, however, an obvious genetic trait (as well as a phenotypic response) that results in "knees" even on habitats where their necessity seems questionable. For example, bald cypress grows knees even on drier edaphic environments and not just in waterlogged soils of swamps. Anyway, this pond or local slough (dry at time of photograph) was full of bald cypress knees.
By the way these pneumatophores can be a major obstacle to travel, especially for canoes or pirogues in shallow water. It is interesting (and appropriate for several slide/caption units herein) that the original pirogues of the Louisiana Cajuns were dugouts made from bald cypress. When rangemen, foresters, trappers, bird-watchers etc. walk through a maze of cypress knees they should be careful not to skin their shins on the knees. (Pun intended.)
Miller County, Arkansas. Mid-July. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A co-dominant variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Bald Cypress Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series 223.11 in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community 223.1of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Woods et al., 2004).
114. Low but wet for a while- Backwater slough of Sulphur River (tributary of Red River) in southwest Arkansas with some water still present in mid-summer. Photographs shared above and below showed that most of this slough was dried up in this part of early summer. Here, a very large water oak (in the foreground; to immediate right of pond) and a huge sweetgum (to right-rear of the big water oak) shared the swamp limelight with a bald cypress (tree with big butt swell in right-center midground) ) and an overcup oak and another bald cypress (at left margin in midground, to left of the butt swell-bald cypress) all "accompanied" by several small tree- or large shrub-size blue beech or American hornbeam and a few smaller specimens of planertree or water-elm.
The herbaceous layer was comprised of narrow plumegrass, dominant, and broadleaf woodoats, associate. Forbs did not come to this vegetational "party". Textbook example of a wetland forest range ecosystem. You're welcome, Range Management and Forestry students; it was the author's pleasure. Remarkable forest vegetation.
Miller County, Arkansas. Mid-July. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A co-dominant variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Bald Cypress Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series 223.11 in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community 223.1of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Woods et al., 2004).
115. Where'd the water go?- "Photo-dendrograph" of range vegetation in a (currently dry) slough inside a bald cypress-water oak-ovecup oak-sweetgum wetland forest in the backwater of Sulphur River ((part of the watershed of Red River) in southwest Arkansas. Here in early summer, many of the smaller pond (actually, big puddles) in this slough had dried out or, at least, were lacking surface. The photographer could not determine if dry ponds was typical with these local ponded habitats being only seasonal in nature (present only in certain seasons) or, alternatively, if this was a "dry spell" and the ponds were usually water-filled in early summer yet current dry.
The immense tree trunk in immediate left foreground with conspicuous butt swell and an obvious water line from the currently dried-up slough was bald cypress as were two trees with light-colored trunks in center background. Trees at right midground were a giant specimen of sweetgum and another of water oak. This was a representative synopsis view as to species composition and structure of this forested wetland.
There was a prominent shrub layer in this wetland forest the dominant species of which, as seen, in this "photo-dendrograph" was planertree or water-elm (eg. one to immediate left of the bald cypress in left foreground with leafy branches extending in front of the fluted buttressed trunk). The second major shrub species was American hornbean or blue beech. The dominant herbaceous species was the large, cespitose, warm-season grass, narrow plumegrass while its associate was broadleaf woodoats. The very few, young composite forbs in this "photo-qudrant" could not be identified.
Miller County, Arkansas. Mid-July. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A co-dominant variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Bald Cypress Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series 223.11 in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community 223.1of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Woods et al., 2004).
116. Pine Island Bayou- Portion of bayou along which bald cypress dominated (almost exclusively) the riparian zone. Example of a slough-swell system. Manco soil series.
Big Thicket National Preserve, Pine Island Bayou, Hardin County, Texas. May, late vernal aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A co-dominant variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Bald Cypress Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series 223.11 in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community 223.1 of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
117. Bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) backwater swamp-Consociation of bald cypress but local associates are water oak (Quercus nigra) and water elm (Planera aquatica). No understory at all; standing water most of the year.
Big Thicket National Preserve, Pine Island Bayou, Hardin County, Texas. May, late vernal aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A co-dominant variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Bald Cypress Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series 223.11 in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community 223.1 of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
118. Bald cypress (Taxodium distichum)- Leaves and cones of bald cypress. Hardin County, Texas. September.
Presented immediately were a series of eight photographs of bald cypress, bald cypress-water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica), and bald cypress-red gum (Persea borbonia) swamps in Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County County, Texas. These various stands were used to represent forest cover types recognized by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). The overall forest vegetation was bald cypress-water tupelo bottomland forest on soils that are more-or-less permanently inundated with water. Such wetlands that are dominated by trees have traditionally been defined and described as swamps.
119. Bald cypress- Consociation of bald cypress, including knees and regeneration of bald cypress. Water tupelo was an associate species in this stand of slightly deeper water. Water oak was also "among the numbered", but the number of species was extremely limited.
Slough of Beech Creek, Beech Creek Unit, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas. May, later vernal aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 101 (Baldcypress). Taxodium distichum Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series (223.11) in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community (223.1) of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
120. Big Thicket Cypress-Tupelo Swamp- General view of a bald cypress-water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica) swamp deep in the Big Thicket portion of Texas Pineywoods. Structure, architecture, and species composition typical of this forest type.Second-growth forest so that trees lack size of old-growth patriarchs, but species composition was that of the climax forest. There was abundant regeneration of these two climax tree species. Understorey shrub was swamp cyrilla (Cyrilla racemiflora) which was also regenerating. Did not take long to describe this simple wetland forest community. Obviously the only range feed available was browse provided by the swamp cyrilla.
Along margins of this tract of swamp an adjoining forest on slightly higher land and less hydric soil another forest community had developed that consisted of swamp chestnut oak or, as also known, cow oak and basket oak (Quercus michauxii), shortleaf pine, loblolly pine, sugar maple, red maple (Acer rubrum), sweet gum, and the small tree or shrub of the tallest lower layer known variously as musclewood, blue beech, or American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana). Soil association was a Caneyhead-Kenefick.Big Thicket National Preserve, Maple Creek Unit, Hardin County, Texas. May, late vernal aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A co-dominant variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Nyssa aquatica Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series (223.11) in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community (223.1) of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
121. Deep in the swamp; thick in the Big Thicket- In the deep interior of the legendary Big Thicket bald cypress and water tupelo formed a forbidding, mysterious, erie, etc. (adjectives and explectives abound) wetland forest. These two vertical photographs showed representative samples of this forest vegetation. The shrub in center foreground of second slide was swamp cryilla.
Big Thicket National Preserve, Maple Creek Unit, Hardin County, Texas. May, late vernal aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A co-dominant variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Nyssa aquatica Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series (223.11) in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community (223.1) of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
122. Water tupelo-bald cypress swamp- Healthy natural regeneration but perennially standing water undoubtedly prevents other than rare browsing by white-tail deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Big Thicket National Preserve, Maple Creek, Hardin County, Texas. May, late vernal aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A co-dominant variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Nyssa aquatica Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series (223.11) in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community (223.1) of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and(223.11) Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
123. Local stand of bald cypress and redbay (Persea borbonia)- There was some water tupelo present, but redbay was clearly co-dominant with water tupelo a "dim and distant" third among tree species while red maple limped in at fourth place. The major species of shrubs were sqamp cyrilla and swamp or dwarf palmetto. Little Pine Island Bayou, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas. May, late vernal aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). Variant of SAF 104 (Sweetbay-Swamp Tupelo-Redbay). Tupelo-Cypress Series (223.11) in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community (223.1) of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Griffith et al., (2004).
124. Black tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) swamp- Blackgum dominated a small swamp formed by backwater of the San Jacinto River. Yaupon and swamp or dwarf palmetto formed one to two shrub layers (depending on height of yaupon at different locations) in this wetland forest. Adjacent to this swamp were larger areas of less wet soils on which loblolly pine-mixed hardwood-palmetto forest developed. That forest range vegetation was covered under loblolly pine forests earlier in this chapter.
Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of the San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Nyssa sylvatica Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series (223.11) in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community (223.1) of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
125. Blackgum in the backwater- More detailed view of a black tupelo swamp showing species composition and structure of a fairly restricted cover type in the Pineywoods. In addition to the trunks of blackgum "spotlighted" there were various twisted woody vines of rattan or Alabama supplejack, yaupon holly, and swamp or dwarf palmetto in this wetland forest vegetation.
Montgomergy County, Texas (backwater of the San Jacinto River). February, later hibernal aspect. FRES No.16. (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem). A variant of K-103 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest). SAF 102 (Baldcypress-Tupelo). Nyssa sylvatica Association (if and when recognized), Tupelo-Cypress Series (223.11) in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community (223.1) of Brown et al (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).Spanish moss or black moss (Tillandsia usneoides = Dendropogon usneoides) is a common--and conspicuous--component species of the wetland forests (both swamps and riparian forests) as well as surrounding upland forests and savannahs. It was included at this juncture for purposes of interest, variety, and as it seemed "fitting".
126. "Moss"-festooned limb in the Pineywoods- Trees in more southern portions of the eastern deciduous forest complex "sport" numerous species of epiphyte, " a plant that uses another plant, typically a tree, for its physical support, but which does not draw nourishment from it" (Allaby, 1998). Perhaps the most common and widely distributed epiphytic species of forests in southern North America is Spanish moss or, sometimes, black moss or blackmoss, or old-man's beard (Tillandsia usneoides = Dendropogon usneoides).
Contrary to the misleading designation "moss" this epiphyte is not only not a moss but it is, in fact, an advanced vascular plant, a monocotyledon in the Bromeliaceae (the pineapple family). Other forests--the Olympic Peninsula rain forest is the classic case--do have true mosses elegantly draped (="festooned" is the popular word) from limbs and branches of trees. Other forest communities have hanging wisply from their branches so-called "moss" that are species of lichen. The California oak woodland is the classic example. Still yet other forest range types (eg. Oregon white oak forest and the Olympic rain forest) have both actual moss and lichen species as distinct components or even layers of their vegetation.
Where Spanish moss is a member of various eastern deciduous forest cover types it is a conspicuous, even prominent, botanical component of the vegetation, especially given the species' rather indistinctive, "bland" arrangement of thread-like, gray-colored leaves and stems. In popular imagination Spanish moss figures more picturesquely in erie, deep woods like cypress and tupelo swamps as in the mystic Big Thicket. Actually the densest populations of this bromeliad are in trees growing not in forests but in the open and that have large, spreading crowns and where there is plenty of light for this chlorophyllous epiphye. This set of photographs was taken from ancient post oak and willow oak growing in open fields (but still in the area of the historic Big Thicket of Texas' Pineywoods).
Liberty County, Texas. February.
127. Making a habit ot it- Habit (general or outer physical form) of Spanish moss. Strands of thread-like (filiform), grayish stems and leaves of Spanish moss form festoons of considerable size (attaining lengths measured in feet or even yards or meters) as they hang from branches of trees and sway in the slightest breeze. This lichen-resembling species generally lacks roots and instead uses scaly hairs on leaves to absorb water and mineral nutrients from the air (hence, another common name of "airplant"). Spanish moss is regarded as an atmospheric or atmospheric-type eipphyte. It is also a xerophyte (plants living in arid or extremely dry [xeric] habitats) having such xerophytic features as the Crassulacean Acid Metabolism pathway of photosynthesis and multicellular hairs on leaves that reflect excess light and reduce water loss in addition to capturing air-borne nutrients (Diggs et al., 2006, ps. 478, 480).
Ephphytes provide one of the textbook examples of commensalism, a symbiotic relationship in which one organism or species benefits (positive effect) from the association (the commensal; in this instance, Spanish moss) while the other "pardner" (the host), trees or other plants functioning as support and growing space, is unaffected (neutral or no effect) by the relationship. The Spanish moss specimen introduced in the first photograph was growing on a willow oak whereas the Spanish moss plant in the second photograph was hosted by an ancient post oak.
Liberty County, Texas. February.
128. In the thick of it- A sample of portions from three plants of Spanish moss showing the tangled arrangement of gray, filiform (thread-like; linear, slender and circular in cross-section) stems and leaves within the festoon produced by plants of this epiphytic and xerophytic monocotyledon.
Spanish moss is frequently used as nesting material by various species of birds, reptiles, and mammals (from smaller rodents to farrowing sows of free-ranging, feral swine). Indians in both North and South America made miscellaeous uses of this widely distributed bromeliad. Industrial Age man has used Spanish moss for everything from floral decoration to stuffing and packaging material. Anecdotal and empirical evidence has indicated that Spanish moss can be a component of deer diets.
Liberty County, Texas. February.
129. Strands of thread-like leaves- Two close-up views of Spanish moss to show the filiform shoots and individual leaves of this xerophytic epiphyte. These adult plants were of large, mature size but at pre-bloom phenology.
Liberty County, Texas. February.
130. Two distinct plant communities comprising locally restricted vegetation types: 1) a swamp of water oak with bald cypress as an associate and 2) a maidencane (Panicum hemitomon) marsh designated as a lowlands range site. These two types together constitute a flatwoods pond. FRES No. 16 (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem) and corresponding K-101 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest) and FRES No.41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem) with with no Kuchler units small enough to pick up the maidencane type. Maidencane would be included with Kuchler-83 (Everglades) in Florida. The maidencane marsh type is SRM 819 (Freshwater Marsh and Ponds). Mixed Hardwood Series in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community and Maidencane Series (if and when such is recognized) in Southeastern Marshland biotic community, respectively, of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
131. Edge of two wetland range communities- Boundary between the water oak-bald cypress swamp and maidencane swamp introduced in the preceding slide. The swamp portion of this flatwoods pond was FRES No. 16 (Oak-Gum-Cypress Ecosystem) and corresponding K-101 (Southern Flood-Plain Forest) while maidencane marsh was FRES No.41 (Wet Grasslands Ecosystem) with with no Kuchler units small enough for this region so that instead maidencane would be included with Kuchler-83 (Everglades) in Florida. Maidencane rangeland cover type was SRM 819 (Freshwater Marsh and Ponds). Swamp with water oak dominant and bald cypress the associate species comprised a combination or "hybrid" of SAF ted
132. Maidencane in the spring- Hardin County, Texas. May, late vernal aspect. Maidencane Series (if and when such is recognized) in Southeastern Marshland biotic community, respectively, of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
133. Bay-Gall Bog or Titi in the Texas Big Thicket- This vegetation is the most impenetrable "jungle" or "tangle" in the Big Thicket. The local mound-and-intermound relief creates a bog ecosystem. The soil series of the mound microrelief (on the mound) has the spodosol soil series Babco. This is currently the only spodosol mapped in Texas. The dominant plants are red bay (Persea borbonia) and sweet bay or swamp bay (Magnolia virginiana) among the hardwood trees and shortleaf and loblolly pine from the conifers. Gall, swamp cyrilla or, by the Indian name, titi (Cyrilla raecmiflora) is the dominant species of the shrub layer along with gallberry (Ilex coriacea; not to be confused with the preceding gall), bull-briar (Smilax bona-nox), saw-brier (S. glauca), buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), and wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera) dominate the shrub layer. Completing this "tangle" is the herbaceous understory often dominated by rather rank-growing ferns.
The largest trunk (in center) is a loblolly pine, the trunk immediately behind and to the right of it is a water oak, the two trees immediately behind and to the right of the water oak are sweet bay magnolias, and the left foreground tree is a red bay. Most of the shrubs in the foreground understory are swamp cyrilla or titi. Hardin County, Texas. May. There is no specific FRES or Kuchler for this local community that grows within the FRES No. 13 (Loblolly Pine-Shortleaf Pine forest Ecosystem). Mixed Hardwood Series in Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forest biotic community of Brown et al. (1998). South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).
134. Interior of a Texas Big Thicket Bay-Gall Bog- Detail of the shrub layer described in the preceding slide caption. Note the seedling or young tree stage of loblolly pine in the foreground and the adult loblolly pines in background indicating that this is the dominant conifer for this unique local community. Hardin County, Texas. May.
135. The floor or herbaceous layer of a Bay-Gall Bog dominated by ferns. Over 20 species of ferns are native to the Big Thicket and there are another four or five species that may have naturalized here. The ferns are growing on a mound of Babco soil. Hardin County, Texas. May.
136. Profile of Babco soil (the only spodosol mapped in Texas)- Spodosols comprise the soil order characterized by having a light gray eluvial horizon over a reddish aluminum- and/or iorn-enriched horizon. They typically occur in humid areas. The Babco pH ranges from 3.1 to 3.6. Hardin County, Texas. May.
137. Climax Loblolly Pine-Oak Hardwoods Forest- This bottomland Pineywoods is deep inside the Big Thicket and at or, at least, approaching the state of old-growth. It is on the first terrace above Beech Creek and is an edphic climax community of the region with a characteristic open, sometimes bare, understory of grasses in the Panicum, Paspalum, Uniola, and Andropogon species. The three mature trees are (front to rear) water oak, loblolly pine, and cherrybark oak (Quercus falcata var. pagodifolia) whose big limbs form a spreading crown. The adult tree in the background and appearing immediately to the right of the loblolly pine and the small tree adjacent to and, from this angle, appearing to sprout from the water oak are swamp chestnut oaks (Q. michauxii). The small tree at far left opposite the branched cherrybark oak is a young willow oak (Q. phellos) whose branches are interwoven with those of another water oak just to the left of the field of view. The trunk immediately to the right of the loblolly pine whose upper portion is adjacent to the water oak is the rotting snag of some tree that lost the struggle for the most limiting resource, light. The background vegetation is a Bald Cypress Swamp in the floodplain of Beech Creek. About 200 yards from this site there is a sandjack or bluejack oak-sandhill bluestem scrub type that formed from aeolian sand carried up out of the Beech Creek bottoms over geologic time. The sandjack or bluejack cover type (a variant of SAF 72) was covered in the following section. Beech Creek Unit, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas. Vernal aspect, May. FRES No. 13 (Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Forest Ecosystem), K101 (Oak-Hickory-Pine Forest), SAF 82 (Loblolly Pine-Hardwood). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion, 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
Sandjack or bluejack oak is one of several scrub oaks that constitute a forest cover type (SAF 72). The example of this range cover type presented here had developed on an upland approximately 200 yards from the bottomland Pineywoods presented in the preceding section.
138. Sandjack= bluejack oak (Quercus incana)-sandhill bluestem scrub type- The bluestem is a taxonomic complex of little bluestem, including the taxa often shown as Andropogon divergens or Schizachyrium scoparium var. divergens, and slender bluestem (Andropogon tener= Schizachyrium tenerum). A few post oaks are associates of bluejack oak. Composites and various prickly pears (Opunia spp.) are scattered throughout the bunchgrass sward. An aeolian ("blowsand") ridge community.
Beech Creek Unit, Big Thicket National Preserve, Hardin County, Texas. May. FRES No. 14 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem). A variant of K-72 (Oak Savanna). One of the many forms of Southern Scrub Oak, a variant of SAF 72 (Southern Scrub Oak). A Scrub Oak Series of Brown et al (1998), but one was not shown for this region. Sandy upland variant of South Central Plains- Flatwoods Ecoregion, 35f (Griffith et al., 2004).An example of hardwood bottomland forests and their range (ie. the herbage and browse resources) as they occur in the Deep South of southcentral North America was provided by a recovering, cut-over floodplain forest for which the potential natural (climax) vegetation was a mixed hardwood forest with swamp chestnut oak, known also as basket oak or cow oak (Quercus michauxii) as the dominant tree species and with overcup oak (Q. lyrata), Nuttal's oak (Q. nuttallii), and willow oak (Q. phellus) as associate treee species. There were also trees such as eastern or Virginia persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), water honey locust (Gleditsia aquatica), and in absence of fire and appearing to be gaining dominance, sugarberry (Celtis laevigata). Or, alternatively, sugarberry might be the climax (= climatic climax) dominant versus a pyric climax dominated by swamp chestnut oak (and with the other oaks being associates).
Obviously this was a cutover forest with the only old-growth trees (those the loggers missed or passed over for whatever reasons) being swamp chestnut oak. The smaller (and, presumedly, younger and, thus perhaps, more successionally advanced) trees were sugarberry. In other words, the climax (the terminus of forest succession) of this forest cover type was indefinite.
The dominant understorey species was poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron= Rhus radicans= Toxicodendron radicans). The herbaceous component was limited mostly to caric sedges (Carex spp.) in the forest interior and to Virginia wildrye (Elymus virginicus) in openings and the forest edge. In their description/discussion on silvics of swamp chestnut or cow oak, Burns and Hankala (1990), citing and based largely on the work of Hook and Stubbs (1967), explained that swamp chestnut oak probably has an allelopathic reaction that limits understorey development.
This forest appeared to have a species composition that was a "mixture" of several hardwood forest sites on river bottoms in southern North America as described by Putnam et al. (1960, ps. 6-7).
Most of the photographs and their captions were taken from the Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge (La Salle Parish, Louisiana) managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, United States department of Interior.
139. So much mud you could farm it (if it would dry out)- Catahoula River or Catahoula Bayou or, officially, Little River in east central Louisiana is a tributary of the Ouachita (or Black) River, all part of the close-by "Ole Man Riber" (Mississippi River). A floodplain forest of varying physiogonomy, structure, and composition (a bottomland forest made up of several forest cover types) had developed in the valley of Little River. This section of the chapter, Southern and central Forests dealt with the most extensive (and most typical) forest cover type--the swamp chestnut oak-dominated forest--of the general Cataholul River forest ecosystem.
That treatment began with the river and its riparian zone forest and worked outward...
Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge, La Salle Parish, Louisiana. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Not an appropriabe biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998). Mississippi Alluvial Plain- Southern Backswamps Ecoregion 73m (Daigle et al., 2006).
140. From the outside- A bottomland forest of mixed hardwoods on the immediate first terrace of Catahoula River in eastcentral Louisiana. Even though this was a floodplain forest the forest community or ecosystem was not a forest wetland or swamp. Instead, this forest had developed on a well-drained soil on which the potential natural community (climax) was a mixture of mesophytic hardwoods (mesophytes) not hydrophytic species (hydrophytes) like bald cypress (Taxodium distichum). There were a number of plants (from seedling to adult) of water honey locust (Gleditsia aquatica) which typically grows in hydric to mesic soils such as those in oxbow lakes and backwater sloughs and there also quite a few young adult trees of water oak (Quercus nigra) which prefers moist to semi-wet habitats (though occasionally drier microsites of swamps), but the potential dominant tree species of this bottomland forest was swamp chestnut oak or basket oak (Quercus michauxii).
Swamp chestnut oak is generally interpreted as an Intolerant species that typically requires openings for establishment (Burns and Hankala, 1990), but basket oak can become the dominant tree so as to form bottomland forests of the swamp chestnut oak-cherrybark oak cover type (Eyre, 1980). Such was the example treated in this section of this chapter.
The view of the forest seen in this "photo-dendrograph" included the riparian zone in which there were some trees of water hickory (Carya aquatica), water elm or planner tree (Planera aquatica), and river birch (Betula nigra). These stream edge species were absent from the interior of the main body of the forest that was at greater distance from the river.
Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge, La Salle Parish, Louisiana. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Not an appropriabe biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998). Mississippi Alluvial Plain- Southern Backswamps Ecoregion 73m (Daigle et al., 2006).
141. Dominant and associates- Local stand of oak species on a bottomland forest that developed on the floodplain of the Catahoula River in eastcentral Louisiana. Biggest tree (center midground) was a swamp cheestnut oak or basket oak, the apparent dominant of this mesic forest range. Nearest tree to the big swamp chestnut oak or, sometimes, basket oak or, even, cow oak (to its left and slightly in front of it) was Nuttal's oak. The other oak species in this "photo-dendrograph" were overcup and willow oaks.
The green cover at ground layer was overwhelmingly of poison ivy, the dominant shrub of this bottomland forest range. Poison ivy is quite palatable to browsing animals ranging from white-tailed deer to beef cattle. There was also spotty cover of Virginia wildrye.
In descriptions of virgin forest in the "overflowed lands" of Louisiana, including Black River, Darby (1817ps. 190, 200) specifically listed swamp chestnut oak (referred to as "swamp white oak"), overcup oak, and willow oak with these latter identified as "quercus lyrata" and "qurercus phellos". Weaver and Anderson (1954, p. 157) included swamp chestnut oak, water oak, overcup oak, and willow oak as being major species on southern bottomland hardwood forest ranges.
Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge, La Salle Parish, Louisiana. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Not an appropriabe biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998). Mississippi Alluvial Plain- Southern Backswamps Ecoregion 73m (Daigle et al., 2006).
142. Composite lineup- A synopsis shot in the interior of a mixed hardwood (mostly oaks) bottomland forest that developed on the floodplain of the Catahoula River in eastcentral Louisiana. Tree species in this line of trees were (left to right): swamp chestnut oak at left margin (midground), Nuttall's oak (sapling to right of swamp chestnut oak), willow oak, and overcup oak (rightmost tree in foreground) which was being climbed by the liana (woody vine) of trumpet creeper (Campestris radicans). Other liana species in this photograph were peppervine (Ampelosis arborea), Alabama supplejack (Berchemia scandens), and cat or catbird grape (Vitis palmata). Herbaceous species were mostly lacking except for an occasional plant of Virginia wildrye and unidentified Carex spp.
Successional status of these oak species was not known to this author, but it appeared that they were either subclimax or fire climax dominant (swamp chestnut oak) and associates (the other Quercus species). See other slides in this series in which sugarberry appeared to be the 'heir apparent" to dominance.
Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge, La Salle Parish, Louisiana. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Not an appropriabe biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998). Mississippi Alluvial Plain- Southern Backswamps Ecoregion 73m (Daigle et al., 2006).
143. Shade-dense forest range?- Interior of a swamp chestnut oak-dominated or, possibly a mixed hardwood, second-growth bottomland forest that developed on the greater floodplain of the Catahoula River in eastcentral Louisiana. It was explained above and below that the successional status of this bottomland forest was unknown from literature (and undetermined from on-location successional studies), but the forest canopy was so nearly completely that there was obviously too much shade for much of an understorey. The dominant understorey species was poison ivy which existed mostly as low-growing thickets and, secondly, as climbing woody vines (the liana form).
Other liana species included trumpet creeper, such as the specimen climbing the trunk of the largest tree (a swamp chestnut oak) in right midground of the first of these three slides, Alabama supplejack, and cat or catbird grape.
The three views shown here presented the species composition and structure deep inside this recovering cut-over forest with the second and third photograph being of the same forest vegetation as taken from two slightly different camera angles or focal points. These three slides served as "photographic dendro-graphs" Plant species present in the first slide included the aforementioned swamp chestnut oak that was playing host to trumpet creeper, with several other large swamp chestnut oaks in background and, in fore- and midground, smaller trees (large saplings and small poles) of overcup oak, willow oak, Nuttall's oak, and water oak. Cat or catbird grape was visible in this first slide, but Alabama supplejack that was climbing several tree trunks was not discernible.
In the second and third slides (the latter of which was botched up by an Epson Perfection 700 scanner) the largest two trees were swamp chestnut oak (known by locals as basket oak or cow oak) as seen in right foreground of both slides and also (with large burl on upper trunk) in left and center midground in second and third slides, respectively. In the second and third slide the three foremost small poles were sugarberry, which, as remarked throughout this section, appeared to be succeeding (invading) so as to become the future dominant tree species (replacing the currently dominant swamp chestnut oak and the associate overcup, Nuttall's, willow, and water oaks). Water, willow, and overcup oaks were identified within the photographic frames (only in backgrounds) of the second and third slides.
Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge, La Salle Parish, Louisiana. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Not an appropriabe biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998). Mississippi Alluvial Plain- Southern Backswamps Ecoregion 73m (Daigle et al., 2006).
144. Reading successional sign- In the deeply shaded interior of a mixed hardwood (swamp chestnut oak or cow oak was the current dominant) bottomland forest that developed on the floodplain of Catahoula River three slides of forest vegetation presented saplings and small poles of sugarberry that had successfully invaded and were in the apparent process of becoming the future dominant tree species of this second-growth and, eventually replacing the dominant cow or basket oak. Your author found almost zero reproduction of any of the five identified Quercus species in this forest.
The forest on this bottomland sere was recovering from what appeared to have been a typical, earlier-day, cut-over logging operation ("cut-and-run", take-about-anything- that-will-make-a-log, wasteful harvest). Given that almost all tree regeneration (at sapling and pole size/age classes) was of sugarberry while the current forest dominant, swamp chestnut or basket oak, consisted of trees at peak adulthood, senescent, or snag stages, it appeared that sugarberry was the future "king of the woods" while the various oak species were relegated to status of associate species--at best.
These three slides of second-growth forest vegetation centered on the same old-growth (just at onset of senescence) specimen of swamp chestnut oak (it was being climbed by the three liana specis of poison ivy, trumpet creeper, and cat grape) from three camera locations or focal points. The first slide with the old-growth swamp chestnut oak (and its lianas) in background showed a knobby barked pole of sugarberry with prominent surface lateral roots in central foreground with a very small sapling or large seedling of Nuttall's oak to its left (left-center foreground) and a spindly American hornbeam, blue beech, ironwood, or musclewood (Caprinus caroliana) to its near right (and slightly to its rear). The herbaceous cover in immediate foreground (by the sapling of Nuttall's oak) was Virginia wildrye.
The second of these three slides again centered on the just-past-prime old-growth swamp chestnut oak with poison oak, trumpet creeper, and cat grape on its trunk, but with small poles of sugarberry beside it (to left and right rear of the vine-hosted trunk) it apparently ascending the successional throne (succeeding to become the next--probably the climax--dominant) of this recovering second-growth forest. Another large, fully mature adult of swamp chestnut oak was in distant right margin in this second slide. (It, too, had its "escorts" of sapling sugrberry.)
The third slide presented another view of one of the warty barked large saplings of sugarberry (left foreground) and the just-beginning-senescence old-growth swamp chestnut oak complete with its hosted, trunk-climbing woody vines and another sugarberry sapling to its immediate left. A comparatively large pole of eastern or Virginia persimmon was visible in the badkground of both the sedond and third slide (to right of the landmark swamp chestnut oak).
Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge, La Salle Parish, Louisiana. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Not an appropriabe biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998). Mississippi Alluvial Plain- Southern Backswamps Ecoregion 73m (Daigle et al., 2006).
145. A hardened mixture- A trio of slides that comprised a "tri-nested photo-plot" of the interior of a mixed hardwood (with swamp chestnut oak as current dominant tree species), second-growth, bottomland forest that developed on the greater floodplain of Catahoula River in eastcentral Louisiana. Tree species in the foreground of the first slide were water oak, willow oak, and Nuttall's oak (left to right, respectively). The latter two oak species had trumpet creeper climbing their trunks. In the left-center midground there was a water honey locust, three boles (two united at trunk bases) of willow oak, and one (by itself in right-center midground) willow oak.
The second and third slides had one water honey locust at far left foreground (to close mid-ground in seond slide) and five boles of willow oak to right of the water honey locust. The larger liana (was of cat or catbird grape (Vitis palmata). Everywhere that there were visible green leaves this was a mixture of poison ivy and peppervine which grew abundantly in this part of the floodplain forest.
A still-yet closer view of part of this local stand (the fourth-level nested" view) was the subject of the next slide/caption unit ...
Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge, La Salle Parish, Louisiana. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Not an appropriabe biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998). Mississippi Alluvial Plain- Southern Backswamps Ecoregion 73m (Daigle et al., 2006).
146. A hard case closeup- Interior of a second-growth mixed hardwood bottomland forest that developed on the greater floodplain of Catahoula (Little) River in eastcentral Louisiana. This secne was a closer-in view of some of the trees introduced in the three-slide/caption set immediately above. Tree boles here were one water honey locust (leftmost with shoot of cat grape growing across it) and five (all to right of the water honey locust) of willow oak. There was a large shoot of cat or catbird grape to left and climbing the right most willow oak trunk. Fowells (1965) rated water honey locust as Intrmediate in general tolerance (shade/competition) ratings while this species received a Highly Tolerant water tolerance rating (Middleton, 1999, p. 146) which was in contrast to Moderately Tolerant for willow oak and Weakly Tolerant for swamp chestnut oak (Middleton, 1999, p. 146).
The sparse cover of the lower layer in this mostly young shoots of cat grape with some poison ivy and peppervine. There was no herbaceous cover in this photographic view.
Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge, La Salle Parish, Louisiana. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Not an appropriabe biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998). Mississippi Alluvial Plain- Southern Backswamps Ecoregion 73m (Daigle et al., 2006).
147. Tolerating each other- A straight-trunked Virginia persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) at left with a small pole of sugarberry (Celtis laevigata) in the deep interior of a second-growth, mixed hardwood bottomland forest on the greater floodplain of Catahoula River in eastcentral Louisiana. Persimmon has a tolerance (shade/competition) rating of very tolerant (Fowells, 1965) or Tolerant (Wenger, 1984, p.3) whereas Fowells (1965) rated sugarberry as tolerant of shade. Both tree species were well-adapted to the densely shaded environment of this recovering floodplain forest on which white chestnut oak was the current dominant tree species. It was shown and explained throughout this section that sugarberry was the "heir apparent" to forest dominance, at least in continuing absence of fire (see below).
Side-by-side growth of some of these species on this floodplain forest site was inconsistent with publishing ratings as to flooding tolerance. Wenger (1984, p. 8) and Middleton (1999, p. 146) showed sugarberry as Weakly Tolerant while persimmon was rated as Moderately Tolerant (Middleton, 1999, p. 146).
That eastern persimon was an important member of virgin bottomland forest in this area was attested to by the colorful report of Darby (1817, ps. 190, 197; 185 made reference to the Ouachitta to the northwest).
Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge, La Salle Parish, Louisiana. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Not an appropriabe biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998). Mississippi Alluvial Plain- Southern Backswamps Ecoregion 73m (Daigle et al., 2006).
148. Changes a-brewin'- Deep inside a second-growth mixed hardwood bottomland forest that developed on the greater floodplain of Little (Catahoula) River, part of the near watershed of Mississippi River. The tree at left was a swamp chestnut oak or cow oak, the current reigning dominant of this recovering cut-over forest. At right was a younger tree of sugarberry, the apparent future dominant tree species of this floodplain hardwood forest. Sugarberry has a tolerance (general; shade/competition) rating of tolerant (Fowells, 1965) whereas swamp white oak was rated as intolerant and needing absence of canopy for establishment (Burns and Honkala, 1990).
This side-by-side pair-up of these two tree species--along with numerous other slides and captions in this section--showed viewers the results of on-going forest succession, including the concept of tolerance. Sugarberry was slowly but inexorably replacing swamp chestnut oak as the dominant of this recovering second-growth forest that was not subject to fire. This was discussed in greater detail below.
Woody vines in this "photo-quadrant" were cat or catbird grape and Alabama supplejack. Leaves on the ground surface were mostly young ones (immature leaves) of cat grape.
Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge, La Salle Parish, Louisiana. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Not an appropriabe biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998). Mississippi Alluvial Plain- Southern Backswamps Ecoregion 73m (Daigle et al., 2006).
149. Overcup being overclumb- An approximate mid-sized (probably young) adult overcup oak was being climbed by the woody shoots of poison ivy and trumpet creeper (left and right side of trunk, respectively) in a mixed hardwood (swamp chestnut oak was dominant; overcup oak was an associate tree species) second-growth bottomland forest that developed on the floodplain of Catahoula River in eastcentral Louisisna. Much of the leaf cover on the floor of this forest was of poison ivy which grew in this vegetation as both a woody vine and a low-growing shrub in "land-bound" thickets.
The sapling at immediate right of the overcup oak was sugarberry, the species that appeared to be succeeding to dominance of the ultimate climax forest, at least in absence of fire (see the very next slide/caption set).
Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge, La Salle Parish, Louisiana. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Not an appropriabe biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998). Mississippi Alluvial Plain- Southern Backswamps Ecoregion 73m (Daigle et al., 2006).
150. It could have told some hot tales- Snag of swamp chestnut oak (Quercus michauxii) with a huge fire chimney (a fire scar that extended from the soil surfact to the former crown of this old-growth specimen) in an otherewise second-growth, mixed hardwood bottomland forest on floodplain of Catahoula River. The only old-grwoth trees in this obviosuly cut-over forest were swamp chestnut oak which suggested that these trees had pioneered in the clear-cut, former forest.
The main present and future subject of this two-slide feature was the small pole of sugarberry growing in contact with this dead, burnt-out trunk(to immediate left of trunk). This old-growth swamp chestnut oak had apparently "died of old age" (naturally reached the end of its life cycle) and not any fire injury (at least not from direct tissue damage). This swamp chestnut oak (at least its snag) served as a nurse plant for the sugarberry, the species of which on this forest sere and in this recovering second-growth forest appeared to be succeeding to become the dominant tree species of the eventual climax forest.
Sugarberry was not rated as to a tolerance category by Wenger (1984, p.3), but he showed the closely related hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) as Intermediate (the same as numerous oak species). Fowells (1965) and Burns and Honkala (1990) rated sugarberry as tolerant of shade, but very susceptible to fire injury. These authors reported that swamp chestnut oak is intolerant of shade and that this white oak species requires forest openings (or clearings) for establishment and persistence in its forest habitat (Burns and Honkala, 1990). These established silvic features and responses to forest variables combined with the physical evidence of past fire in this featured bottomland forest (eg. this specific tree of swamp chestnut oak) demonstrated the obvious superior fire-adaptation of swamp chestnut oak relative to sugarberry.
Putnam et al. (1960) concluded that a swamp chestnut oak (cow oak)-dominated forest was the climax vegetation on some alluvial forest sites. It appeared from the current cursory examination of a bottomland forest on the floodplain of Catahoula River in eastcentral Louisiana that fire is important--perhaps essential--for maintenance of swamp chestnut oak-dominated forests. It s likely that on some forest sites natural or prescribed fire is essential for preservation of swamp chestnut oak cover type forests. In the example of a swamp chestnut oak-dominated bottomland forest presented in this section, it seemed fairly certain that this recovering second-growth forest was succeeding to a sugarberry-dominated forest in continuing absence of fire.
Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge, La Salle Parish, Louisiana. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Not an appropriabe biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998). Mississippi Alluvial Plain- Southern Backswamps Ecoregion 73m (Daigle et al., 2006).
Oak regeneration- Regeneration (by either natural or artifical methods) is a major and critical problem in the Eastern Deciduous Forest Region. A good summary review of oak regeneration in bottomland forests (including Nuttall' oak, swamp chestnut oak water oak, and willow oak is the paper by Clatterbuck and Meadows in Loftis and McGee (1996, ps. 184-195). Likewise the manual of Putnam et al. (1960) can be very informative, including a lot of useful forestry practices for southern bottomland forests.
151. An opening and an understorey- A comparatively large opening in the canopy of a recovering cutover bottomland forest in which swamp white oak was the climax (potential natural) dominant supported an understorey comprised largely of poison ivy. The first of these two slides served as an overall large "photo-plot" showing the forest opening and the forest itself surrounding the opening. The second slide was a close-in view of a portion of the forest opening such that this closer-up view was a "sub-plot" "nested" within the larger or overall "plot" (the first slide). The shoots of poison ivy in this natural forest opening were small compared to typical poison ivy (whether of the taller, climbing woody vine form of the limited-to-ground colony form).
Tree species in the forest stand that surrounded the natural opening included sweetgum (the largest trunk in center background) which is an Intolerant species (Wenger, 1984, ps. 2-3; Burns and Hankala, 1990) and typically a pioneer tree spcies on disturbances such as clearcuts. Presence of sweetgum strongly suggested that 1) this species had established following cutting (probably high-grading or, alternatively, cutting everything that would make a log) of this forest, and 2) that this cutting was recent enough that the sweetgum had not reached maturaity and died. Otherwise, sweetgum would not be in a climax forest on this forest site. Another possibility is that the sweetgum esatblished on the edge of the forest opening where it as an Intolerant spceices could get adequate light for survival and growth.
Other tree species in the forest stand at far edge of this opening included willow oak; water oak; water honey locust; and common, Virginia, or eastern persimmon. Virginia persimmon is regarded as Very Tolerant, while willow oak and water oak, (and probably water honey locust) are regarded as Intolerant (Burns and Hankala, 1990). In this forest stand the presence of specific tree species with such a wide range in tolerance ratings most likely reflected the stage of forest succession at which individuals of these species established on this bottomland sere (successional habitat).
Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge, La Salle Parish, Louisiana. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Not an appropriabe biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998). Mississippi Alluvial Plain- Southern Backswamps Ecoregion 73m (Daigle et al., 2006).
152. Some sunlite details- Part of a a "broken" (interrupted or sporadic) understorey of a swamp chestnut oak-dominated bottomland forest on the outer floodplain of the Catahoula River in eastcentral Louisiana. This bottomland oak forest had become so dense in absence of fire (unnatural fire exclusion by the white man's Smoky bear) that there was an herbaceous understorey only in patches coinciding with openings in an otherwise closed canopy forest.
The first slide was of some Carex species that was not blooming or in fruit and therefore could not be identified by this traveling photographer. There was also some cat green-brier growing around this caric sedge plus--of all things--the Intolerant pioneer tree species, sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua). Yes, anyone could identify a sweetgum; but in a small opening in this dense bottomland forest? Figure that one out!
The second slide was another "photo-quadrant" of the sporadic understorey which was dominated by the understorey dominant , poison oak, along with the monocotyledonous forb
Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge, La Salle Parish, Louisiana. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Not an appropriabe biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998). Mississippi Alluvial Plain- Southern Backswamps Ecoregion 73m (Daigle et al., 2006).
Note on stocking rate: Stocking rates for hardwood bottomland forest vry tremendously based not on on forest range site but also on state/stage of forest succession (eg. pioneer/weed stage versus closed canopy), silvicultural methods, forest range species present due to logging/grazing/burning history, species and market class of range animal (eg. cow/calf versus stocker), physiological stage (eg. dry, pregnant cows versus wet, re-breeding cows versus replacement heifers) and so forth. In their simple how-to-do forestry manual Weaver and Anderson (1954, p. ) gave a stocking rate of 10 to 40 acres of bottomland hardwood forest range per cow for a six-month grazing/browsing period. Obviously that recommendation was so broad and general that, like Luke's nativity story, it left more unanswered and open for speculation than it resolved.
Many forest sites and management units of bottomland hardwood forest range are probably best left ungrazed by livestock (certainly by hogs) and reserved for smaller range animals that are browsers more than grazers. This author has seen hardwood forest ranges (both upland and bottomland sites) for which the stocking rate would be upwards of roughly 120 to over 200 acres per mature British breed beef cow (weighing roughly 1000-1200 pounds) and with perhaps 40 acres for her calf up to roughly six or seven months of age.
The range resource, especially from a livestock production standpoint, is clearly secondary to timber production and other multiple uses, especially perhaps watershed values (including reduction of flooding) and recreation including hunting, bird-watching, hiking, etc. As remarked in the preceding paragraph, bottomland forest range is oft-times best reserved for wildlife such as white-tailed deer where, again, other uses besides for livestock feed are consistent with Gifford Pinchot's "greatest good for the greatest number for the longest time".
Any use of herbage and browse--whether by/for livestock or wildlife--must give first allowance for regeneration of forest range plants, including the less conspicuous grasses, grasslike plants, and forbs as well as the principal commercial tree species. Excessive browsing by white-tailed deer has become a major problem in regeneration of oak species (Loftis and McGee, 1996, ps. 18-19). Apparently reducing damage to young, establishing oak trees brought about by white-tailed deer is a much greater challenge than controlling damage by tractable, readily managed livestock such as cattle.
It is conceivable that some defoliation of palatable understorey shrubs could facilitate establishment of less palatable hardwood species. This hypothesis could be a tested by grazing/browsing trials involving a control (no grazing by large herbivors) as compared to treatments of cattle grazing only, deer browsing only, and dual grazing/browsing by cattle and deer. Your author did not find reports of such studies, but he discovered as boy growing up in the western Ozark Plateau that cattle (breeds ranging from Jersey to Hereford) readily grazed such forest shrubs as poison ivy and Virginia creeper, species that often develop complete cover of the floor of oak-hickory forests. In fact, this author has seen numerous instances in which cattle overbrowsed such species to a degree that these shrubs were completely eliminated from forests (other than those that climbed trees above the cattle browse line. This is obviously improper use of forest range, at least under ordinary production situations.
Holland et al. (1990, ps. 204-205) emphasized that cattle grazing shoud be carefully controlled (best management under many conditions is delaying all cattle grazing) until hardwood trees have established and grown above height of damaging cattle browsing.
153. Thorns and poison leaves on the floor- Two seedlings of water honey locust on the floor of a bottomland forest on the greater floodplain of Catahoula River in eastcentral Louisiana. The seedling in the first slide was growing in association with poision ivy, the ddominant shrub and the dominant understorey species of this forest for which the potential dominant tree species was swamp white oak (known also as chestnut oak). The seedling in the second slide was growing on bare soil without accompanying (competiting) understorey species. Both seedlings had germinated in small natural openings in this recovering (and densely stocked) cutover forest.
Water honey locust has been classified as Intermediate in tolerance groups (Fowells, 1965), but as to water tolerance rating category it is Highly Tolerant in contrast to Weakly Tolerant for swamp chestnut oak and Moderately Tolerant for willow oak (Middleton, 1999).
Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge, La Salle Parish, Louisiana. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Not an appropriabe biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998). Mississippi Alluvial Plain- Southern Backswamps Ecoregion 73m (Daigle et al., 2006).
154. Sleeping in twin beds- Male (smaller, behind) and female (larger, front) of golden silk orbweaver (Nephilia clavipes) in a bottomland forest in floodplain of the Catahoula River. Each of these spiders had its own web with a distance of roughly three inches between the two (this little boy was taking no chances).
What these spiders have to do with this forest range was beyond this author's insight, but in the ecosystem concept nothing is irrelevent. This is most certainly true for organisms. "Goods and services" provided by these invertebrates (functional role, ecological niche, etc. of these carnivorous consumers) while perhaps unknown to the human mind was somehow relevant--perhaps even critical--to this forest range ecosystem.
Handy tip to woods traavelers- during much of the summer through early autumn, numerous species of orb-weaving spiders (some of them with erie body shapes, at least by human standards) spin their webs throughout the forests spanning from tree-to-tree and bush-to-bush to, among other things, trap their prey. Commony (almost inevitably) humans become unintended larger prey resulting in bothersome, sticky webs wrapped around their faces, stuck in their mouths, smeared across their spectacles and, not infrequently, with leaf-shaped spiders (usually those of the larger female sex) falling down their shirt collars and creeping across their backs. To minimize such unwelcome close encounters it is advisable to carry a walking stick, hiking staff, cane, club, whatever and, while moving joyously along, swing the traveling aid (more or less continuously) up and down in the foreground of the travaeler's anticipated path. Otherwise, the biped woods-walker can physically contact these interesting arthropods and discover more details of Mother Nature's secrets.
Catahoula National Wildlife Refuge, La Salle Parish, Louisiana. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). SAF 91 (Swamp Chestnut Oak-Cherrybark Oak). Not an appropriabe biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998). Mississippi Alluvial Plain- Southern Backswamps Ecoregion 73m (Daigle et al., 2006).
There are a number of forms and recognized cover types of bottomland forest in eastern and southern North America (Eyre, 1980) with some forests being "pretty much" pure types or variants thereof, but there is also an almost infinite variation of unrecognized or non-described forest communities that are combinations of some of these more widespread and simplier forest cover types. One such example was presented immediately below. This was a second-growth forest that was apporaching old-growth status. This forest was actually a composite or a vegetational mosaic of several commonly recognized cover types.
This forest range community was a second-growth mixed hardwood bottomland forest that was an "amalgamation" of trees (sweetgum, green ash, water oak, overcup oak, and willow oak) with a multi-layer understorey ranging from taller shrubs like water-elm and blue beech or American hornbeam down to an upper herbaceous layer comprised of canebrakes, a lower herbaceous layer of caric sedges and broadleaf woodoats, and finally, sporadic cover of cryptogams including fungus and lichen.
This "amalgated" example had developed on the Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas.
155. Entry into a restoring primevial forested bottom- Introduction to the composition and structure of a second-growth mixed hardwood bottomland forest in the Texas Pineywoods, part of the westernmost edge of the North American Eastern Deciduous Forest. This was a second-growth mixed hardwood forest that was approaching old-growth state from standpoint of species composition and vegetational layers. It clearly appeared to be the climax vegetation for this forest site, but this forest range community lacked the senescing/dying/dead trees of the ultimated old-growth forest.
The first slide presented general structure of this forest with young adult trees of overcup oak and water oak (left foreground), nearly maximum adult-size of a sweetgum (right near-background), American hornbeam or blue beech (shrub in center midground), and a well-developed two-layer herbaceous zone of giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea), dominant of the upper layer, and broadleaf woodoats (Uniola latifolia), dominant of the lower layer, along with Louisiana caric-sedge (Carex louisiana) which was the associate of this lower herbaceous layer.
The second slide featured an overcup oak (left margin) and two giant sweetgum (right midground) with blue beech or American hornbeam dominating the shrub layer and the herbaceous (= woody or semi-woody grass) layer dominated by giant cane.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
156. Moving farther into, seeing more of the same- Interior of a mixed hardwood bottomland forest at (or, at least, nearing) climax stage for this forest range site in the Pineywoods of northeast Texas. The first slide served as a"photo-dendrograph" with sweetgum (left and right background), water oak and willow oak (center), American hornbeam or blue beech (right margin), and giant cane (everywhere). The second slide showed two giant sweetgum trees (at right center background) and three smaller water oak (to left of the two larger sweetgums) along with seedlings of American elm and green ash and the dead shoot of American hornbeam or blue beech in right foreground). Broadleaf woodoats were in foreground of this second slide. Giant cane (the native bamboo species) was widespread in the understorey seen in both of these slides.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
157. Smaller trees and big cane- Three views at progressively closer camera distance of a second-growth mixed hardwood bottomland forest range that developed on the old bed of the upper Sabine River in northeast Texas. Shoots of giant cane were in evidence everywhere in these three views. There was also considerable cover of broadleaf woodoats plus some local cover of Louisiana caric-sedge. The smaller (presumedly, younger) trees were mostly of overcup oak and sweetgum. The first slide had a pole-sized overcup oak in left foreground (with lower epicormic branches) and a sweetgum at far left background while rest of trees were also overcup oaks.
The second slide the two herbaceous layers in this bottomland forest: 1) an upper layer of giant cane (a woody to semi-woody grass) and 2) a lower layer of broadleaf woodoats and Louisiana caric-sedge. Also in this second slide were poles of sweetgum and overcup oak with large sapling-sized shrubs of blue beech or American hornbeam and water-elm or planertree at far right. The third of these three slides featured sweetgum (large tree at right background and the pole in immediate center foreground) and overcup oak (poles at far right midground). Of course, the shoot of giant cane, the native east Texas bamboo species, "stole the show in both the second and third "photographic forest plots".
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
158. Herbaceous actors- A local colony of Louisiana caric-sedge along with tall shoots of giant cane were importnt players on the floor of a mesic mixed hardwood forest range that developed on the old channel of the upper Sabine River in the Pineywoods of east Texas. The dead and rotting log in immediate center foreground illustrted importance of decomposer in natural ecosystems.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; fruit-ripening phenological stage of the caric-sedge.
Not that far from Louisiana- Local large plant (a clonal colony) of Louisiana caric-sedge (Carex louisiana) growing in the understorey of a mesic mixed hardwood forest range on the old channel of the upper Sabine River in the Pineywoods of east Texas. This is a more western part of once-vast Eastern Deciduous Forest Region or, as the Cajuns would see it, the Texas "lap land" (that part of Texas where Louisiana laps over).
Louisiana caric-sedge is a widely distributed, growing in an interrupted species range from Texas to Virginia (along both the Gulf and Atlantic Coasts) and up through the lower Midwest to Indiana and Kentucky. Louisiana cric-sedge is capable of growing into large plants as seen here.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; fruit-ripening phenological stage of the caric-sedge.
Boys and girls in the wet woods- Staminate flower clusters (long, narrow, threadlike parts at left and center) and pistillate flower clusters with spikelets of Louisiana caric-sedge (Carex louisiana) on the floor of a mesic to wet mixed hardwood forest on the old river bottom of the Sabine River in east Texas.
This was one of several sexual shoots on the large plant (a clonal colony) of Louisiana caric-sedge introduced in the immediately preceding two-slide/caption unit.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; fruit-ripening phenological stage of the caric-sedge.
Male and female parts- In the first or upper of these two slides a staminate flower cluster was a left on the most distal portion of a shoot apex and a pistillate inflorescence was at right center or lower down of the shoot apex of Louisiana caric-sedge. In the second or lower slide the female flower cluster in the first slide was shown at closer camera distance to present more detail of spikelets with ripening achenes.
These organs were on a large plant (a clonal colony) of Louisiana caric-sedge introduced in the two-slide/caption unit two units above.
Carex louisiana is in the subgenus Eu-Carex, species of which have three stigmas and the achenes are three-sided (Steyermark, 1963, p. 313)
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; fruit-ripening phenological stage of the caric-sedge.
159. Canebrake and hardwoods- Two local canebrakes (stands of giant cane of species, Arundinaria gigantea) in the tall herbaceous understorey beneath various woody angiosperms on the old channel of the upper Sabine River in east Texas near the western perimeter of the Eastern Deciduous Forest Region. Tree species in the first slide included overcup oak, willow oak, and water oak along with some sweetgum. Woody species in the second slide, which was on outskirts of a water-containing slough, were southrn red oak, water oak, overcup oak, and sweetgum and the two principal and tall-growing shrubs, planertree or water-elm nd blue beech or American hornbeam plus the low-growing Virginia creeper and colony-forming poison ivy.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
160. Wet enough for a riparian refugee- A multi-trunked river birch (Betula nigra) provided an example of a shrub species of the middle woody layer of a mixed hardwood bottomland forest that developed on the old channel of the upper Sabine River in northeast Texas near the western perimeter of the Eastern Deciduous Forest that once covered much of the eastern half of North America. The two more abundant shrubs of this middle woody layer were blue beech or American hornbeam and water-elm or planertree. Notice that one of the shoots (trunks) of this multi-shoot river birch had already succumed to maturity and was rotting into the fertile soil of this productive forest.
Major trees of this mixed hardwood forest were overcup oak, water oak, willow oak, and sweetgum. Green ash was a locally important hardwood tree species. The lower herbaceous layer of this forest range as seen here was dominated by broadleaf woodoats while Louisiana caric-sedge was a distant associate species.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
161. Life among the living and dead- Interior of a second-growth mixed hardwood bottomland forest on the old stream bed of the upper Sabine River in the Texas Pineywoods. These two slides and the slide immediately bdlow constituted a "double nested photo-plot" with the first of the current two-slide set being the overall plot and the second of these two slides being the first level subplot of the first slide of overall "photo-plot". The featured trees of this "three-part show" were a large, mature-adult sweetgum (big trunk at left midground of first slide) and a snag of and a large live tree of sugarberry (Celtis laevigata). The sugarberry snag was to immediate right of big sweetgum in first slide. The large, rotting trunk in right foreground of second slide was that of swamp or bottomland post oak (Quercus similis). Live sugarberry and sweetgum were in distant background of first slide and middle background of second slide. There were also some trees of overcup oak in background of the second slide.
For whatever reason(s) sweetgum ( typically a pioneer tree species) and sugarberry (characteristically a climax or, at least, a high seral tree species) were present at similar stages in the life cycle of individual trees of their species. Both species had large, fully mature trees (even dead individuals in case of sugarberry) plus some seedlings. The other big story in these two slides was the well-developed, multi-layered understorey. This understorey consisted of large (small tree-size) plants of the shrub species, blue beech or American hornbeam, planertree of water-elm, and river birch. (See immediately preceding slide/caption set for example of river birch.). There was much cover of woody vines that made up most of a lower shrub layer. Liana species included poison ivy, muscadine grape, roundleaf green-brier, Virginia creeper, and peppervine (Ampelopsis arborea) There were two layers of herbaceous cover: 1) an upper layer of giane cane (a semi-woody grass) and 2) a lower and interrupted layer dominated by broadleaf woodoats with Louisiana caric-sedge as the associate.
The fungus at right base of the bottomland or swamp post oak snag (immediate foreground; slightly right center) was peppery milk-cat (Lactarius piperatus var. glauescens), a generally poisonous fungus of the Basidiomycetes class. This fungus was the subject of the next slide/caption set ...
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
162. Life on the dead- The fruiting body or caprophore of peppery milk-cap (Lactarius piperatus var. glauescens) growing at base of a rotting snag of swamp postoak in a mixed hardwood forest that developed on the former stream channel of the Sabine River in the Pineywoods in northeast Texas. The leaves to the right of the fruiting body were of poison ivy, a major liana in this second-growth forest that was either at or apporaching the climax state.
Fungus were commonplace in this mesic to wet bottomland forest.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June.
163. Big because they were early- Interior of a mesic to wet, second-growth mixed hardwood forest on part of the old stream bottom of Sabine River in northeast Texas near the western edge of the Eastern Decisuous Forest Region. This second-growth forest, which was at or, at least, approaching the climax forest community, waas part of the forest complex of the Texas Pineywoods. In the first of these two slides the large tree in left margin was a green ash and the large tree in right foreground and another in left background (to right of the green ash) were sweetgums. Trees in the badkground of this view were overcup, water, and willow oaks.
In this first slide, the single-stemed shrub in immediate right-center foreground (to right of large sweetgum) was blue beech or American hornbeam, which overall was the dominant shrub in this forest. In this first as well as the second slide, the semi-woody grass, giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea), made up an upper herbaceous layer while a lower herbaceous layer was made up of broadleaf woodoats, and Louisiana caric-sedge as dominant and associate species, respectively, of this layer.
In the second slide the large tree in right foreground was a green ash and the larger tree in center midground (to immediate right, as seen here) was an immense sweetgum. Numerous trees of overcup oak and willow oak grew in the background as seen in this second slide. In addition to giant cane and Louisiana caric-sedge, various species of the warm-season Panicum and Paspalum were presen.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
164. Big 'uns and littlier 'uns- In a second-growth mixed hardwood forest that formed on the old bottom of Sabine River in the Pineywoods in northeast Texas this gargantuan green ash grew among sweetgums (large tree in left background; to left of the big green ash); overcup, willow, and water oaks; and green ash along with American hornbeam or blue beech (the sapling-like single-trnuked shrubs in the first slide) which was the most abundant shrub throughout this mesic to wet forest.
Greater details of the trunk of the old-growth specimen of green ash along with blue beech and the grass, broadleaf woodoats, and the grasslike species, Louisiana caric-sedge were presented in the second slide. Giant cane, a semi-woody native grass, formed a more-or-less continuous upper herbaceous layer while broadleaf woodoats and Louisiana caric-sedge comprised a sporadic (interrupted) lower herbaceous layer along with a few forbs.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
165. Big tree and big grass (and both of them woody)- The semi-woody to woody native bamboo, most commonly known as giant cane (shown to better advantage in the first of these two slides), and an old-growth specimen of sweetgum (details of its trunk presented in the second slide) along with American hornbeam or blue beech, a sapling of willow oak, and numerous liana species formed this local community or stand within a second-growth, mixed hardwood bottomland forest in the Pineywoods of northeast Texas. This forest range vegetation developed on the old stream channel of the Sabine River at the western edge of the Easter Deciduous forest Region.
The hole in the lower trunk of this sweetgum was a fire scar that resulted in a partial hollow (pronounced "holler" in these parts) where tree tissue was heat-killed.
Other adult--though still young trees--in background of the first slide included overcup and willow oak plus some larger (presumedly older) trees of sweetgum. The most prominent liana in this local "photo-dendrogram" was Alabama supplejack that was growing up the trunk of the fire-scarred sweetgum. Other woody vines included poison oak, roundleaf green-brier, peppervine, and Virginia crreeper. The main species of a lower herbaceous layer were broadleaf woodoats and Louisiana caric-sedge. There were some forbs at early pre-bloom phenological stages that could not be positively identified.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
166. Started later, but going to stay- Interior of a second-growth mixed hardwood forest that developed on the old stream channel (an old river meander)of Sabine River in northeast Texas. Three progressively closer camera distance views (a "double-nested photo-plot") of an immature (as to growth) adult and a large sapling or small pole of overcup oak and a shrub-sized blue beech or American hornbeam along with a well-developed, two-layered herbaceous understorey. The sapling or pole overcup oak was in front of and, in first slide to left of, the adult overcup oak. The blue beech or American hornbeam was to immediate right of the adult overcup oak.
The two layers of the herbaceous understorey were: 1) an upper layer made up of the semi-woody giant cane and 2) a lower, eradic layer dominated by broadleaf woodoasts with Louisiana caric-sedge as associate. Woody vines included Virginia creeper and poison ivy (including the one twinning on trunk of the young adult overcup oak. The giant tree in the right background was a sweetgum.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
167. Over and under- A larger and sexually mature tree (behind in the first slide) and a sexually immature sapling (in front of first slide) and lower trunk with leaves on a lower branch (second slide) of overcup oak (Quercus lyrata) in a second-growth, mixed hardwood bottomland forest that developed on an old meander of the upper Sabine River in northeast Texas.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June.
168. Another over and under view- Another example (the second specimen) of overcup oak showing trunk (first or vertical slide) and leaves on a lower branch of the same tree (second or horizontal slide) in a second-growth, mixed hardwood bottomland forest on the old stream channel of the upper Sabine River in northeast Texas.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June;
169. Big plants; big botanical variety- Three progressively closer (shorter camera distances) views of representative hardwood specis on a bottomland mixed hardwood forest that developed on a previous stream bed of the Sabine River in northeast Texas. This was mesic to wet forest range was in the Texas Pineywoods near the western border of the main body of the Eastern Deciduous Forest.
The largest tree, which was at right in the first two slides and the huge trunk in the third (vertical) slide, was an old-growth water oak. The two left-leaning trees in the first slide and the one left-leaning tree in the second slide were overcup oaks. There was also a much smaller overcup oak in between the two left-leaning overcup oaks in the first slide. The larger trunk in the right midground of the third (vertical) slide was an overcup oak (one of those in the previous two slides shown from a different camera point). A specimen of American hornbeam or blue beech was represented by the extremely right leaning, single-shoot shrub to the left and growing diagonically across the immense water oak in the first and second slides and to the right of and leaning toward the water oak trunk in the third slide. There were two other blue beech at left in the first and second slides.
There were several species of woody vines including poison oak, peppervine, and Virginia creeper. There were some plants of broadleaf woodoats and Louisiana caric-sedge.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
Note: discussion of water tolerance ratings of various tree and shrub species that are dominants and associates of wet to extremely mexic southern forests was provided in the immediately preceding section in this chapter that dealt with a swamp chestnut oak-mixed hardwood forest on the floodplain of the Catahoula River in east Louisiana. A repeat of that discussion and descriptio n was deemed as redundant and unnecessary at this short distance.
170. Big tree tells a hot story- An old-growth water oak deep inside a mixed hardwood bottomland forest had a relatively small fire scar on its lower trunk, but in the strange manner of some such fire entries the flames caught the oaks inner wood (possibly due to partially rotted heartwood) and exited as a fire chimney. Remaining charcoal inside the trunk and charred edges of burnt bark were ample evidence of fire incidence and injury to this tree. The flames (the heat from them anyway) extended far up the trunk (upwards of 15 feet or more) with the lower part of the fire chimney being over five feet above ground level.
There was no evidence of fire injury or even charred bark on neighboring overcup oaks and blue beech or American hornbeam. Overcup oaks were of relatively small size suggesting that they had grown after a surface fire in this forest or, alternatively, that fire damage to the muh larger (presumedly older) water oak had been inflicted by lightening strike restricted to this one tree.
Plant species in the understorey of this bottomland forest as seen here included poison ivy, Virginia creeper, Louisiana caric-sedge and unidentified (early growth-stage) forbs.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
Examples of reducers or decomposers- Presented immediately below were two fungus species that grew and were reproducing on two dead and fallen branches off of the fire-injured water oak seen immediately above. Decomposers along with producers and consumers are the three biotic groups of range or forest ecosystems. Yes, obviously reducers also consume dead, decaying (they are the decayers) biomass, but in the ecosystem concept groups such as bacteria and fungus are described as reducers or decomposers.
171. Life on dead- Rusty gulled polypore (Gloeophyllum sepiarium) on a dead, fallen branch of water oak on the floor of a mixed hardwood bottomland forest that developed on an old meander of Sabine River in northeast Texas. This branch had fallen from the fire-scarred (fire chimney) water oak shown in the three immediately preceding slides.
This polypore fungus is in the Polyporaceae (in order, Aphyllophorales of the Basidomycetes).
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June.
172. More life on dead- Several fungal species were living off of the dead substrate of a fallen water oak branch in a mixed hardwood bottomland forest on the old stream channel of Sabine River in northeast Texas. This large branch was off of the water oak with the fire chimney that was shown in three slides in the second slide/caption set above this set.
The orange-colored fungus in these two images was ochre spreading tooth (Sleccherinum ochraceum) which is in family Hydnaceae (in order, Aphyllophorales of the Basidomycetes).
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June.
Attention: students should have noted that both of the above fungus species on the dead branches of a fire-scared, old-growth water oak were in the same taxonomic order and two different families. Basidomycetes is a class (a taxonomic unit within the higher taxonomic unit called division in Botany) the species of which produce their basidia and basidiospores, spore-bearing structures resembling clubs, on or in a basidiocarp. Basidiocarp is the sporocarp, the structure which bears the spore-producing hymenium. The hymenium in turn is a layer of tissues in the fruiting body of the fungus within which cells develop and differentiate into the basidia.
173. All around a slough- A misec hardwood bottomland forest developed on the old stream channel of Sabine River in northeast Texas. This mesic to wet forest community was on the western portion of the Eastern Deciduous Forest Complex of eastern North America, a part of what is commonly called the Texas Pineywoods. Seen here was a local slough or water-ponded local habitat around which grew second-growth trees of several hardwood species. The large tree with "banded" bark (trunk with horizontal bark "stripes") at left in the first two of these three slides and in left center of immediate foreground in the third slide was southern red oak (Quercus falcata). The three trees to right of the southern red oak (one conspicuously larger than the other two) in the first two slides. In the third slide the largest overcup oak was to left read of the southern red oak and other overcup oaks were to the right of the "banded" or "striped" bark southern red olak. The largest tree in the background (right of center) in the second slide was an immense sweetgum. There was also a water oak and sapling of green ash in this second photograph and, as seen from a slightly different angle, in the third photograph. A green ash seedling was in left foreground (lower left corner) of second photograph.
Shrubs included the woody vines, trumpet creeper and roundleaf green-brier, and (in distant background) planertree or water-elm.
The pronounced grass-like understorey (foreground of all three slides) was some unidentified (pre-bloom stage) Carex species.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
174. At edge of a slough- A local slough inside a mesic to wet mixed hardwood bottomland forest that was on the old stream channel of Sabine River in northeast Texas, part of the Texas Pineywoods that is intslf a part of the Eastern Deciduous Forest. The first of these two scenes presented a green ash and a sugarberry standing side-by-side (left and right, respectively) and two trunks of American elm to close together they appered as a single forked trunk (which they were not). The larger tree trunk in right-center midground waa a sweetgum. Other smaller trees (large shrubs) were planertree or water elm (shown in greater detail at closer camera distance below).
The green ground cover in foreground of the first slide and the feature of the second slide was poison ivy with some Virginia creeper as an associate to it.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
175. In the slough, part one- Two synopsis views of a local slough in the interior of a mesic to wet mixed hardwood bottomland forest on an old meander of Sabine River in northeast Texas. This forest was a part of the Eastern Deciduous Forest Region of North America, a range community of the western border of this vast forest complex. The small trees of large shrubs that were actually growing in the shallow, ponded water of the slough were water-elm or planertree. This included the crooked trunk in right foreground of the second slide. Examples of these water-elm plants--especially, the right-leaning individual in center midground of the first slide--were shown in more detail in the immediately following two-slide/caption unit.
The tree in right foreground of first slide and the same tree in left-margin foreground of the second slide was an overcup oak. The large tree in left midground and the tree in extreme right margin of the first slide were sweetgums. Green, bushy appearing plant cover in lower right corner of the first slide was mostly poison ivy with some roundleaf green-brier. The green covering on the water surface was millions of fronds of duckweed (Lemna aequinoctialis), a monocotyledon generally valuable as a forage for ffsh and herbiverous waterfowl.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
176. In the slough, part two- A local slough, body of shallow (generally less than one foot deep) ponded water, supporting several specimens of planertree or water-elm and with a nice straight overcup oak at right margin in the first of these two slides. A woody vine of Alabama supplejack was climbing the trunk of the overcup oak. The green, shimmering cover on the water was comprised of countless fronds of duckweed, an aquatic monocot that serves as a major forage source for fish and birds (eg. ducks and geese as implied by the common name) and, perhaps, even forage-feeding furbearers.
The second slide was a closer-in and more complete view of the shoot of the planertree shown in the first (vertical) of these slides. This same individual plant was also shown in the first slide in the immediately preceding two-slide/caption unit.
This slough was deep inside a mixed hardwood bottomland forest that was on the old stream channel (an old meander) of Sabine River in northeast Texas. This was an example of some of the forest vegetation of the Texas Pineywoods at the western "forest frontier" of the Eastern Deciduous Forest Complex.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
177. Outside and in- Physiogonomy (first slide) and species composition and structure (second slide) of a second-growth mixed hardwood bottomland forest that developed on sligher higher and drier (less moist or wet) ground of an old meander of the Sabine River in northeast Texas.
In the first slide, tree species shown were (from left to right, respectively) willow oak, overcup oak, willow oak, and, rightmost tree, black oak. There was a large (by shrub standards) blue beech or Amereican hornbeam between the black oak and the willow oak that was to the right of the overcup oak.
In the second slide, tree species were sweetgum (left); willow oak; three black oaks at right (including one at far right); and behind between the sweetgum and to left rear of willow oak, was an overcup oak. Also at right in this second scene was a large shrub or small tree (single trunk) of blue beech or American hornbeam and then a snag of something.
The understorey in the local community of the first slide was broadleaf woodoats whereas giant cane (the native bamboo) made up most of the understorey in the community presented in the second. Some cover of both of these grasses was present in both of these scenes of local forest range communities.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). Forest cover type as described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) was Willow Oak-Water Oak-Diamondleaf oak (88). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
178. Inside a floodplain forest range- A second-growth mixed hardwood bottomland forest in the Texas Pineywoods (northeast Texas) furnished an amazing standing crop of herbage on an old meander of Sabine River. This was a beautiful example of hardwood forest range in the western "forest frontier" of the Eastern Deciduous Forest Complex that in pre-whiteman days extended from parts of the Atlantic Coast to the TransMississippi West.
Native forest tree species in this sylvan scene included overcup oak in left foreground, swamp post oak (Quercus similis) in center midground, another swamp post oak in right midground, and a water oak, the center tree in midground with very dark trunk. Herbaceous cover in the foliage-rich understorey was almost all broadleaf woodoats with some unidentified caric-sedge (as in lower left corner). There were some individuals of blue beech or American hornbeam.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
179. More variation on the same forest "theme"- Sylvan views of a local stand of a second-growth mixed hardwood bottomland forest on the old stream channel of Sabine River in northeast Texas. This Pineywoods forest was part of the western extension of the Eastern deciduous Forest Region. In the first slide, which served as a "photographic dendrogram", a young adult overcup oak (left-center was surrounded by numerous saplings of overcup oak (these were most likely progeny of the young and sexually mature overcup) while a smaller water oak was at right-center. There were several smaller plants (shrubs) of eastern hop-hornbeam amid an herbaceous understorey dominated by broadleaf woodoats and with some immature, unidentified caric-sedges as a generic associate. There was also auite a bit of cover of roundleaf green-brier.
The froest range vegetation in the second slice was similar to that of the first photograph with an herbaceous understorey dominated by broadleaf woodoats. There were also some plants of an unidentified (immature) composite forb. Roundleaf greenbrier was well-represented. The larger tree terunk in left margin was an overcup oak and the smaller, darker-trunked tree in right-center midground was a winged elm (Ulmus alata). The single-stemed shrub in between (and slightly behind) theovercup oak and winged elm was an eastern hop-hornbeam.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
180. Two key trees- Swamp post oak (left) and willow or willowleaf oak (right) along with poison ivy, roundleaf green-brier, broadleaf woodoats, and an unidentified (very young) composite forb made up this local forest stand that was part of a second-growth mixed hardwood bottomland forest on the old stream channel of the upper Sabine River in northeast Texas. This was part of the Pineywoods portion of the once-vast Eastern Deciduous Forest Region.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
181. Old and burled- An old-growth specimen of overcup oak with a very lage burl in an otherwise second-growth mixed hardwood bottomland forest on the old stream channel of the Sabine River in northeast Texas. The stress or injury that induced this growth was not known to this author. This overcup oak appeared to be serving as a nurse plant to small saplings of several other tree species including a water oak at its left and two sugarberry at its right.
Most of the herbage was that of broadleaf woodoats, the dominant or associate grass species throughout most of this forest, but there was a good represntation of giant cane, the native bamboo that was also a common dominant (often more so that broadleaf woodoats) grass. Poison ivy, roundleaf green-brier, trumpet creeper were well-distributed woody vines and eastern hop-hornbeam was a shub of drier habitats that was also present.
Old Sabine Bottom Wildlife Management Area, Smith County, Texas. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 15 (Oak-Hickory Forest Ecosystem. K-91 (Oak-Hickory Forest). No one specific or single forest cover type described by the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980). So varied that that there was not a "one-for-all" appropriate biotic community unit in Brown et al. (1998), much of this vegetation fit Mixed Hardwood Series 223.13 of Southeastern Swamp and Riparian Forests 223.1 of Warm Temperate Swamp and Riparian Forests 223 (Brown et al., 1998 p. 43). South Central Plains- Floodplains and Low Terraces Ecoregion 35b (Griffith et al., 2004).
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