Mixed Prairie - IC

Southern & Central Great Plains
(including the Wyoming Basin & associated foothills grasslands)

General Survey of Mixed Prairie on Southern and Central Mixed Prairie (continued)

* Temporarily still under construction: the mixed prairie is immense in size and amazingly diverse in species composition with ambiguous boundaries. Please be patient.

Mixed prairie comprises the vast majority acreage of Great Plains grasslands. Mixed prairie was named for its most obvious floristic aspect: it is comprised of tall-, mid-, and shortgrass species. This mixed composition is not always present as there are posclimax tallgrass-dominated communities, even consociations of tallgrass species (eg. sand bluestem [Andropogon hallii]), on deeper and or sandy soils, preclimax shortgrass (eg. buffalograss [Buchloe dactyloides]) communities on shallow soils and generally more xeric range sites, and yet other grassland communities (usually consociations) made up almost exclusively of a single species (eg. western wheatgrass [Agropyron smithii] on swale range sites). Sometimes speakers will refer to mixed prairie as "midgrass prairie" to be consistent with tallgrass prairie and shortgrass plains and reflecting an overall physiogonomy that is intermediate (= "midway") between the latter two major forms of central-continent grasslands.

The ultimate reference for mixed prairie (and shortgrass prairie) from standpoint of descriptions of range vegetation and response to disturbance is--and will likely always be--the classic Grasslands of the Great Plains by Weaver and Albertson (1956). Definitive source of knowledge regarding mixed prairie from an ecosystem perspective is that of Coupland (in Coupland, 1992, ps. 151-182). The comprehensive monograph on shortgrass plains (=prairie, steppe) edited by Lauenroth and Burke (2008) overlapped--by necessity--parts of the mixed prairie so as to be a valuable reference for western extremities of mixed prairie.

General comment on organization: Arrangement of vegetational units in chapters and sub-chapters of Range Types of North America was based on classification and description of vegetation as established by such seminal works as Clements (1920), Weaver and Clements (1929, 1938), and Braun (1950) and not on (or according to) geographic region or physiographic province as was followed (sort of ) for forest cover types (Eyre, 1980) and rangeland cover types (Shiflet, 1994). In Range Types range vegetation was organized as to climax or potential units of natural plant communities at organizational levels extending from biomes or formations, associations, etc. down to range types and, in some cases, range sites. Certain of the major and more diverse associations (mostly Clementsian associations) or major subunits of biomes (such as mixed prairie in this instance) were subdivided into chapters organized by physiographic provinces or related natural geologic units (eg. Northern, Central, Southern Great Plains). Again, however, it was vegetation--not region or geologic province--that served as primary or fundamental basis of distinction and arrangement of chapters within this publication.

Central Great Plains Sandhills Mixed Prairie

The sandhills range presented in the section immediately below was clearly dominated by needle-and-thread with blue grama as associate species. It was essentially missing a tallgrass (bluestem and prairie sandreed) component although individuals of these species were present. Perhaps tallgrass species had been grazed out although this seemed unlikely. Also a cold, wet, late spring over this region had retarded phenological development of warm-season grasses while resulting in a standing crop of needle-and-thread seldom seen. Conversely, species composition dominated by needle-and-thread and blue grama was consistent with the observation of Dodd (in Gould and Shaw,1983, p. 350) that these two species “are dominant in a limited number of areas with sandy soil”. Whatever the explanation, there was only miniscule cover of sand and little bluestems on this range. Range vegetation shown here was an island of mixed prairie characterized by sand sagebrush in a “sea” of mixed prairie dominated by the shortgrasses, blue grama and buffalograss. Range vegetation presented was obviously a variant of sand sagebrush prairie with range condition class (sucessional status) unknown.

Morgan County, Colorado.Late June, but spring-summer growing season was delay such that this was still vernal aspect (vernal plant society). FRES No. 39 (Prairie Grassland Ecosystem). K-63 (Sandsage-Bluestem Prairie).

276. Central Plains Sandhills mixed prairie- Landscape-scale view of needle-and-thread dominated-mixed prairie in sandhills of western High Plains. Blue grama was the associate plant species in this range vegetation in which there was no characteristic tallgrass species. Sand sagebrush provided an infrequent though defining shrub component in this range plant community. Plains pricklypear was the second important shrub species on this range. Species composition and structure of range vegetation was relatively limited and fairly simple (ie. not a range plant community of remarkable biodiversity). There was, however, a major warm-season and major cool-seaosn grass species so as to have pronounced differences in seasonal aspects and societies (even if simple). Also, just two major grass species resulted in both bunchgrass and sod- (sodforming) grass components as well as (by traditional usage) midgrass and shortgrass growth forms in this climax range plant community.

This range type was mixed prairie (of dominant and distinguishing midgrass and shortgrass species but without tallgrasses), and with infrequent shrub cover. This was grassland and not savanna; mixed prairie not tallgrass prairie (with distinction from the latter being critical and explained lower in this caption).

Nor was this range type a form of true prairie. Arguably this climax grassland could be intepreted and described as true prairie from the standpoint of dominance by needle-and-thread or as a transition form of prairie, but blue grama was present at such cover, density, and constance as to be always either an associate or, less commonly, co-dominant. Such constant presence and role of blue grama unquestionably placaed this grassland vegetation in mixed prairie, the Stipa-Bouteloua association (Clements, 1920, p. 135-139) and not in true prairie, the Stipa-Koeleria association (Clements, 1920, ps. 121-131). In this classic and seminal monograph there was a Stipa comata consociation listed for both true prairie and mixed prairie (Clements (1920, ps. 122, 137, respectively ), but a major role of blue grama (co-dominant or associate) as evidenced by a Boutelous gracilis consociation was limited to mixed prairie (Clements, 1920, p. 137). Furthermore, eleven lines below his listing of consociations, Clements (1920, p. 137) cited an earlier survey and description that placed grassland near Akron, Colorado in mixed prairie. Range vegetation presented here was photographed in the vicinity of Akron, Colorado.

Climate was also a distinguishing factor in defining this range type. Development of this climax vegetation in the sermiarid rather than the subhumid zone to the east was a major difference and a distinguishing feature that also placed this range type closer to mixed prairie than true prairie. Clements (1920, p. 122) drew the western boundary of true prairie to aproximately the 98th meridian. Range vegetation shown here was to the west of the 101st meredian well within the vegetational zone of true prairie (Clements, 1920, ps. 136-137).

It was also stressed that the land form and soils of these sandhills should not be confused with the Nebraska Sandhills which are located to the east and in a generally more moist precipitation zone. Range vegetation in the Nebraska Sandhills varies along isohytes (as well as among other environmental variables), but these various plant communities are primarily postclimax tallgrass prairie whereas climax vegetation of the sandhills to the west is mostly various types of mixed prairie. Likewise, there is a similar overall difference between the postclimax tallgrass prairie of the sandhills or duneland in the Southern Great Plains (as for example in northwestern Oklahoma) and mixed prairie of the sandhills shown here. There is an obvious unity of sandhills mixed prairie and sandhills tallgrass prairie both as to land form, soils, and plant species shared in common. Sand sagebrush was the most conspicuous of shared defining species. This was explained in the two rangeland cover type descriptions provided by the Society for Range Management (Shiflte, 1994, ps.74, 99) that could be applied--corrrectly and precisely-- to this needle-and-thread mixed prairie vegetation. Neither of these descriptions--in the current author's opinion--distinguished clearly between mixed and tallgrass prairie forms or variants within range types that justifiably (in this worker's view) could have been split into separate rangeland cover types for sand sagebrush-tallgrass prairie and sand sage-mixed prairie types.

Morgan County, Colorado. Late June- late vernal aspect; soft grain stage in needle-and-thread. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). No appropriate Kuchler unit. SRM 605 (Sandsage Prairie) and/or SRM 722 (Sand Sagebrush-Mixed Prairie): two competing rangeland cover types or two slightly different titles and descriptions of the same or very similar range vegetation. Closest description in Brown et al. (1998, p. 40) was Cold Temperate Grassland 142, Plains Grassland 142.1, Mixed "Short-Grass" Series 142.13. High Plains- Moderate Relief Plains Ecoregion, 25c (Chapman et al., 2006).

277. A western sandhills mixture- Vegetational mosaic of Stipa-Bouteloua mixed prairie on sandhills of the Central Great Plains. Local (separate) patches of needle-and-thread consociation (background) and blue grama consociation (foreground) with sand sagebrush providing a woody component to both. In this overall range plant community needle-and-thread was the dominant and blue grama the associate species. In local spots blue grama was the dominant, if not the exclusive, species (foreground, both photographs). Other grasses commonly (widely) associated with needle-and-thread and blue grama (eg. sand dropseed, buffalograss, sideoats grama, red and purple threeawns) were limited almost to point of nonexistance. The two major climax (decreaser) grasses did, however, furnish both warm-season and cool-season species to produce pronounced seasonal aspects and societies on otherwise simple (though never boring) species composition and structure of range plant community. These two species also contributed both a bunchgrass and sod (sodforming) grass and, by conventional terminology, a midgrass and a shortgrass. In effect, there was considerable diversity and variation as to life (growth) form and layers of vegetation for such a limited number of species and groups of range plants. .

Forbs were as limited and, in fact, of no obvious consequence. Shrubs were present as sand sagebrush, a definng species (eg. sand sage mixed prairie) though one more conspicuous than dominant as to relative cover, and plains pricklypear. As could be seen throughout this Mixed Prairie (as well as the Shortgrass Prairie) chapter, plains pricklypear was the single most consistently present or constant shrub on the semiarid grasslands of the Great Plains. This included being associated with more domiant grass species, on more soils (associations and/or series) and land forms, and in more ecoregions than any other woody plant.

278. Needle-and-thread consociation in Central Plains Sandhills- Stipa comata is the number one dominant and the first defining species of the climax mixed prairie (Clements, 1920, Weaver and Clements, 1938, Dodd (in Gould and Shaw(, 1983). While difficult--if not impossible--to show conclusively, it is generally assumed from common observtion that heavier and more continuous (or frequent) commercial grazing has resulted in widespread increase in blue grama relative to the usually taller-growing needle-and-thread. It could be argued that such a shift from one climax co-dominant to the other did not amount to a change in successional status of range plant communities. Plus, any such change in relative cover (and consequently in species composition) from dominance by cool-season to warm-season grass was a major practical--an economically advantageous--change from the standpoint of range cattle production. With decreases in needle-and-thread and corresponding increases in blue grama, beef cattle could graze on better summer pasture (have nutritionally superior diets) when there is less risk of animal death (and tremendous economic losses) due to blizzards. There are at least two other obvious advantages of blue grama over needle-and-thread: 1) blue grama cures better for winter forage and 2) blue grama does not have the potential for mechanical injury to animals posed by the sharp callus on the lemma of needle-and-thread.

These facts of ranching notwithstanding, from an ecological perspective dominance of mixed prairie on many (probably most) range sites indicates range plant communities closer to the potential natural (pre-Columbian) vegetation. Dominance ("first among equals") by needle-and-thread indicates he successional "benchmark", the vegetation development "highwater mark" of some range types of mixed prairie and of mixed prairie in genera.

Such a state of climax range vegetation was shown in these two photographs, the first of which presented the general physiogonomy while the second gave detail of the sward of a needle-and-thread consociation. Presence of sand sagebrush as the major shrub of this climax mixed prairie community was also emphasized.

Emphasis was laid on three other points. First, these photographs were taken in a year that was extremely favorable for growth and productivity of Stipa comata A cold wet period from late winter through spring resulted in an "extra good year" and an extraordinary crop of biomass by needle-and-thread. Second, photographs were taken in late June at peak standing crop for needle-and-thread, a cool-season species, and before blue grama, a woarm-season species, had made more than mid-stage vegetative growth. This resulted in photographs that emphasized cover, density, and relative composition of the former more than the latter. Finally, this range professor and advocate of sound grazing land management had to mark the outstanding stewardship and obvious love of the land demonstrated by the owner and/or manager of this rangeland.

One of the goals of this publication was to highlight the best in stewardship of natural resources so as to provide students with outstanding examples of conservation and wise (proper) use management of the land. This example of needle-and-thread--blue grama mixed prairie in Excellent range condition class furnished a superb standard for which any range manager could strive. Cattle of quality equal to that of the range they grazed had just been gathered and the photographer was unable to show the principal tool by which this range was being cared for and left unimpaired for the landowner's grandchildren.

279. Growing by bunches in the sandhills- Several plants of needle-and-thread on the sandhill range described in the above section. The cespitose (bunched or tufted) growth habit of this species was evident. These plants were in stages of both asexual (vegetative) reproduction and sexual reproduction: shoots (tillers only; no rhizomes or stolons) and fruits (caryopses), respectively. A top-down view of Stipa comata was given in the succeeding slide.

Morgan County, Colorado. Late June- late vernal aspect; soft grain stage in needle-and-thread.

280. Fulfilled and being fulfilled- Needla-and-thread at peak standing crop and with grain in soft-dough stage "accompanied by" plains pricklypear in full bloom. This "photo-quadrant" was on the "mint condition" sandhills range featured in this section and dominated by needle-and-thread and with blue grama as the associate species (Stipa comata-Bouteloua gracilis mixed prairie). Sand sagebrush was present as a defining--though certainly not a dominant--climax species of this range vegetation, hence the Sand Sagebrush Mixed Prairie rangeland cover type (SRM 722). Plains pricklypear was also a climax species of this needle-and-thread--blue grama sandhills range.

This photograph with plains pricklypear growing in a climax stand (a consociation) of needle-and-thread, the regional dominant species of mixed prairie, demonstrated the fact that plains pricklypear, like sand sagebrush, is a climax species of this rangeland vegetation. It must be strongly stated and clerly explained that these two woody species are native components of the climax or potential natural vegetation only at relative abundance (ie. general or overall density, cover, presence, biomass) that is natural, where natural is as a minor component. Excess abundance (excessive cover, biomass, density, etc.) of either of these two shrubs constitutes brush (noxious woody plants) invasion and is both symptom and partial cause of range degradation (= retrogression). The relative "amount", the percentage composition or proportion, of pricklypear or sagebrush is what determines whether these shrubs are native woody components of climax vegetation or brush. At the proportion of plains pricklypear preented here this would clearly be brush invasion, but this shrub was present overall in the plant community of this range at much lower relative cover and biomass than shown in this "photo-plot", the purpose of which was simply to show both the dominant grass (needle-and-thread) and plains pricklypear as native plants on sandhills mixed prairie.

This photograph also presented both species in sexual reproduction: plants of both species either fulfilled (plump, ripening caryopses of needle-and-thread) or being fulfilled (flowering stage as prelude to fruit and seed production in plains pricklypear). Life and annual cycles of both species were being completed; each species was perpetuating itself with "re-shffling" of the gene deck. The magic and mystery of life portrayed through range plants.

Morgan County, Colorado. Late June- late vernal aspect; soft grain stage in needle-and-thread.

281. Another and "purer" form- Another consociation of needle-and-thread on low sandhills with plants of sand sagebrush ""very few and real far between" and without a mosaic of local shortgrass and midgrass patches as in mixed prairie and mixed prairie-savanna shown above. This was not only the grassland (vs. savanna) variant or phase of mixed prairie it was also mixed prairie of strictly midgrass composition any appreciable cover of shortgrasses being absent from this range vegetation.

This simple range vegetation defied categorization as to published designations of rangeland cover types, range ecosystems, biotic communities, etc. It seemed plausible that past management, especially of grazing, had eliminated (probably through interactions with competitiveness and efficient reproduction, in particular seedling establishment, of needle-and-thread) other grass species. The most likely of these would have been prairie sandreed and blue grama. Perhaps heavy grazing later in summer (high stocking rates during the warm-growing season) and possibly with delayed or deferred spring grazing reduced the warm-seaon grasses while needle-and-thread (the cool-season dominant on this deep sand) received little if any grazing other than by smaller numbers of wildlife. Speculation on the part of a passing-through rangeman.

Anyway, number one, something happened; number two, it was a helluva stand of needle-and thread.

282. A bit more variety- Still yet another consociation of needle-and-thread in the Central High Plains; another example of the extent of dominance of which this species is capable, especially in a wet and cool spring. This "photo-sample" of mixed prairie range included a fair representation of sand sagebrush for a shrub component. The major forb was plains or western spiderwort (Tradescantia occidentalis) or, perhaps, longbract, bracted, or spiderwort (T. bracteata) given that the two species integrade in this area. There was almost no other species in this grassland stand except for a few widely scattered (and small at that) patches of cheatgrass.

283. Stand of needle-and-thread- Consociation of Stipa comata on an Excellent condition class range in a more western part of the Central Great Plains. The genus Stipa, including all those split-out, cladistically invented genera in Barkworth et al. (2007), is one of the dominant and defining taxon of the once-great grasslands of the interior of North America. Clements (1920, p. 114) interpreted the climax vegetation of continental interior at the most extensive scale of a plant community as the Grassland Climax (Stipa-Bouteloua Fomation) which included six Associations, one of these being the subject of this chapter which is Mixed Prairie (Stipa-Bouteloua Association). S. comata was the Stipa species that defined (and furnished the first name for) the association of the mixed prairie in the Clementsian model (Clements, 1920, ps.135-139). Green needlegrass (S viridula) was also important and had its own consociation (Clements, 1920, p. 137) as was porcupinegrass (S. spartea), which was the equivalent dominant species of the True Prairie (Stipa-Koeleria Association). Yet it was S. comata that "headed the ticket" of the Mixed Prairie (proper name) as interpreted by Clements (1920, p. 122): "Stipa spartea is the most typical domiant of the true prairies, while S. comata belongs primarily to the mixed prairies". Nonetheless even on True Prairie one of the major consociations of the association was that of S. comata (Clements, 1929, p. 122).

Dodd (in Gould and Shaw, 1983, ps. 349-351) adopted and preserved in the basic Agrostology text the climax (association) interpretation of Clements, 1920). In addition, Dodd was more specific as to which species were dominants and associates on the general kinds of range sites. Weaver and Clements (1938, p. 523) listed needle-and-thread first as "major dominants of the widest distribution" of midgrass species in the mixed prairie.

Needle-and-thread is the plant, the number one--most major and first dominant--species (ie. the defining plant species) of the mixed prairie in the successional sense, "the alpha plant" of the mixed prairie climax; even though blue grama likely furnishes more feed for range animals as the mixed prairie currently exist.

Ecological sidebar: this same relationship also held for the pre-Spanish Pacific Prairie on which S. pulchra, purple needlegrass, was the one dominant of the association "which far overshadows all the others" (Weaver and Clements, 1938, p. 526). Stipa is one damn important genus in defining major units of North Amereican grasslands.

Laramie County, Wyoming. Late June; peak standing crop.

284. Another stand- A second consociation of needle-and-thread was shown (perhaps mostly because the author thought it was so "purty"). This "photoplot" also was obviously Excellent condition range.

Washington County, Colorado. Mid-June-approximately middle of grain-ripe stage.

285. Whole plants (shoot portions) of needle-and-thread- Thye cespitose (bunched or clumped) habit of needle-and-thread was conspicuous in this photograph which also introduced the prominent panicles with ripening caryopses inside the long-awned lemmas. These latter features were shown immediately below. The individual plants shown here were relatively small for this species. These particular plants had established on a road cut made a few years earlier and these appeared to be young individuals (genotypes) of needle-and-thread. This seeding-in ability is another testament to the survuval and dominance qualities of this outstanding native species.

A good general and practical reference fo needle-and-thread was the Natural Resources Conservation Service Plant Guide (Ogle, 2006).

Niobrara County, Wyoming. Late June; peak standing crop.

286. Sexual shoots of needle-and-thread- Overall view of needle-and-thread panicles with ripening grains.

Washington County, Colorado. Mid-June.

287. Panicles of needle-and-thread- Representative inflorescences reflecting typical spikelet features of this dominant species of the mixed prairie. Laramie County, Wyoming. Late June; hard-dough stage.

288. Florets of needle-and-thread- The long-awned lemmas surrounding caryopses (grains) is a hallmark feature of needle-and-thread, the number one and major defining dominant of the mixed prairie. This is also a morphological characteristic that can inflict mechanical injury to grazing animals. This drawback does not override the forage value--both yield and nutritive content--of this climax species.

Laramie County, Wyoming. Late June; hard-dough stage.

289. Another important needlegrass- Stand of green needlegrass (Stipa viridula) on a postclimax tallgrass prairie in Nebraska.Sandhills. Green needlegrass is a midgrass species that is more typical of the mixed than of the tallgrass prairie. For that reason some photographs of S. viridula were included here even though the examples were, strictly speaking, growing on tallgrass prairie range. Clements (1920, p.137 ) recognized a green needlegrass consociation for his Mixed Prairie (Stipa-Bouteloua Association). Even though green needlegrass is a dominant on some mixed prairie range sites, it is needle-and-thread that is the defining overall dominant of the mixed prairie.

Fort Niobrara National Wildlife Refuge, Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June; grain-ripe phenological stage.

290. Representative of green needlegrass- A single plant of green needlegrass in the stand introduced in the immediately preceding slide was used to show habit and general features of this cespitose species.

The Natural Resources Conservation Service Plant Guide for green needlegrass (Knudson, 2005) was recommended as a semi-technical reference.

Fort Niobrara National Wildlife Refuge, Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June; grain-ripe phenological stage.

291. Florescence of green needlegrass- Panicle on one of the plants growing in the stand on postclimax tallgrass prairie that was presented above.

Fort Niobrara National Wildlife Refuge, Cherry County, Nebraska. Late June; grain-ripe phenological stage.

292. Floral reminiscence of an arachnid resemblance- Western or plains spiderwort (Tradescantha occidentalis), Commelinaceae (dayflower family), on Great Plains mixed praririe. This monocotyledon is often the most common and locally dominant forb on mixed prairie ranges in higher condition classes. The specimen in the first of these slides was on a range featured below that represented the needle-and-thread--western wheatgrass cover type (SRM 607) whereas the specimen in the second slide was on a range described below that was as an example of mixed prairie of the western wheatgrass--blue grama--needle-and-thread type (SRM 608).

First photograph from Sioux County, Nebraska; second photograph from Washington County, Colorado. Late June, full-bloom stage.

293. Pretty on the plains- A plant of plains, bracted, or western spiderwort (Tradescantha bracteata) bearing an unusually prolific crop of blooms in an unusually wet spring on the Central Great Plains. Details of some of these inflorescences was shown in second photograph. This particular plant was growing in a sea of needle-and-thread.Tradescantha bracteata integrades with T. occidentalis so that it is almost impossible to distinguish between these two species.

Washington County, Colorado. Late June, peak-bloom stage.

294. About done for this year-A few plants of western or plains spiderwort that were "winding down" for this year's growing season. Fruit was ripening and shoots were senescing and about to enter dormancy. These plants were on climax western wheatgrass--ble grama--needle-and-thread-dominated mixed prairie where they were only one of several range forbs included in this section.

Niobrara County, Nebraska. Late June.

295. In Excellent company- A prime specimen of crested tongue penstemon (Penstemon eriantherus) on Excellent condition class mixed prairie of needle-and-thread, western wheatgrass, blue grama, Indian ricegrass, and threadleaf sedge. The range that this beauty was growing on was presented and described above. Some of the other range plant species growing on this same "mint condition" range (eg. threadleaf sedge) were shown below with other dominant or otherwise major range plants.

Niobrara County, Wyoming. Late June; full-bloom stage.

296. A crested tongue: what more could anybody want?- Up close views of the flowers of crested tongue penstemon growing on the Excellent condition mixed prairie range described above.

Niobrara County, Wyoming. Late June; full-bloom stage.

297. Narrowleaf (narrow-leafed) or narrow beardtongue (Penstemon angustifolius ssp. angustifolius)- This Penstemon species does not typically grow as large (or as showy) as beard tongue penstemon just shown, but it is another species of forb on the western part of mixed prairie. This one was also growing on a range described previously (and also in Excellent range condition class).

Sioux County, Nebraska. Late June; full-bloom stage.

298. Mixed prairie on the Central Great Plains- Diversity in several forms (species composition, cool-season vs. warm-season species, plant community structure, microrelief of land surface) was present on this mixed prairie range in the central Great Plains. This pasture had historically been subjected to heavier grazing than the one presented in the preceding three-slide example. (This one was on a different research station.) The range shown here had substantially greater relative cover of buffalograss and conspicuously less ralative cover of needle-and-thread and sand dropseed. There was also somewhat greater cover of plains pricklypear though much of this effect was due to greater visibility of the soil surface on the shortgrass form. The most conspicuous difference in species makeup on this shortgrass variant of mixed prairie was absence (or nearly so) of sand sagebrush. Genus Artemisia was instead represented by fringed sagewort (A. frigida).

This shortgrass, sod prairie was "tight land" (more clay) versus somewhat of a "sandy land" range in the previous example that was more of a bunchgrass and sagebrush prairie. Thus differences in species composition and vegetational structure between this example and the one presented immediately above were due to different range sites as well as degrees of use (grazing intensity). Both pastures were grazed by beef cattle.

Major grasses were blue grama, western wheatgrass, buffalograss, and needle-and-thread with relative cover (= % species composition) varying depending on microsite. Overall, blue grama was dominant. Sixweeks fescue and little barley (Hordeum pusillum) were two native annual grasses that were locally common to dominant: Major forbs included wild alfalfa or slim scurfpea (Psoralea tenuifolia), fringed sagewort, western spiderwort, and wavyleaf thistle. Scurfpea was represented by several light-green, bushy plants in the fore- and midgroundbush. Shrubs were limited mostly to plains pricklypear with some soapweed yucca.

A composite "sample" of this range vegetation was presented in the first of these two slides. The second slide featured a shallow drainage (across the foreground narrowing down going to background) dominated by western wheatgrass.

Central Plains Experiment Station, Washington County, Colorado. Late June (early estival aspect). FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-57 (Grama-Needlegrass-Wheatgrass). SRM 608 (Wheatgrass-Grama-Needlegrass). Closest description in Brown et al. (1998, p. 40) was Cold Temperate Grassland 142, Plains Grassland 142.1, Mixed "Short-Grass" Series 142.13. High Plains- Flat to Rolling Plains Ecoregion, 25d (Chapman et al., 2006) .

299. Only neophytes and the unappreciative see monotony in mixed prairie (even if it is short)- A shortgrass varaint of the needle-and-thread--blue grama--western wheatgrass cover type on the Central High Plains. These were two more views of the same range subjected to long-term heavy grazing that was introduced in the preceding (immediately above) two-slide set. In spite of the short stature of range plants (partly a consequence of heavy grazing)

The second of these two photographs presented details of the sward of the sodgrass (= shortgrass) community form of mixed prairie. Species in this second 'photo-quadrant" included included blue grama (the circular patch in foreground), buffalograss (yellowish-green "carpet" in left background and right midground), western wheatgrass (most of foreground around circle of blue grama and extending back to buffalograss), pricklypear (center background), and sand dropseed (background behind pricklypear). Western or prairie spiderwort was preent at sparse density and not distinguishable from grass at these distances.

The next (immediately below) two-slide set presented greater detail of composition and structure of the shortgrass component at closer camera range.

300. But it can be short- Two successively closer-in views of sward of a predominately shortgrass form of mixed prairie in Central High Plains in this photograph and the one following it. Sward in this photograph was dominated in background by western wheatagrass and by blue grama and buffalograss in foreground. Sand dropseed, needle-and-thread, and sixweeks fescue were present in background along with plains pricklypear.

301. Short up close- Plot of sward of the Central High Plains blue grama--western wheatgrass--needle-and-thread mixed prairie described immediately above and presented here at closer camera distance. This photograph showed the relative cover and sod features of the shortgrass component of this mixed-grass (both short-and midgrass species) prairie range. Note the proportion of land surface that was bare ground even in the sodgrass (vs. bunchgrass) form of mixed prairie. This can be compared back to the first (and at greater-camera-distance) photographs of this range vegetation to reveal that the foliar plant cover of even the sodgrass form of mixed praire includes a lot of bare soil surface. This illustrated the potential for soil erosion even with range of this type in proportionately high successional status. This range was in Good to Excellent range condition class even though it had been heavily grazed (fairly high degree of use). Students should not confuse utilization (degree of use; extent of defoliation) with successional status relative to climax (range condition class).

Vegetation in this "photo-quadrant" was dominated by blue grama and buffalograss with a few larger plants of fringed sagewort. Even in the ungrazed state these two co-dominant shortgrass species are never very tall although sexual shoots of blue grama sometimes approach a midgrass height (say, two feet under ideal growth conditions). This was especially the case for this vegetation in early summer before blue grama has much flowering and grain production.

302. Closer still, and confusing- Dead sexual shoots (amber-colored with large, full panicles) of sixweeks fescue were still rooted within live and growing shoots of western wheatgrass. At first flush a range examiner unfamilar with this vegetation could be easily confused by "what was what" in this local stand. Sixweeks fescue (like other species bearing the "sixweeks" adjective) is an ephemerial grass, an annual that completes its life cycle extra fast (as short as five to nine weeks perhaps) even by annual standards. Sixweeks fescue is a cool-season annual.

Benefits--hence, evolutionary adaptation--of this pattern of resource allocation on the harsh habitat of the drought-prone, semiarid Great Plains are obvious. A different strategy (Grime, 1979) for adaptation to stress and survival to reproduce in this severe environment was evolved by the cool-season perennial, western wheatgrass. Evolution of different strategies (Grime, 1979) permits these two native range grasses to exploit different resources and conditions so as to occupy different ecological niche even while living side-by-side (and for all rangemen know even to root graft).

These seemingly drab and otherwise unspectacular species provided examples of Darwinian fitness, the degree to which a species, ecotype, or genotype is adapted to its environment so as to leave ecologically optimum numbers and quality of progeny (offspring). This is natural selection or "survival of the fittest", the phenomenon by which those organisms that are best adapted (as determined by their genes or gene action) to their habitat leave the greatest number of competitive offspring (and their genes) to perpetuate their kind (species, ecotype, genotype) in the eternal "struggle for esistence". This is the theory of evolution as first introduced formally by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace on 1 July, 1858 and continually refined by generations of biologists. For those with lesser minds (and the Creator whose grand design it is) it is another kind of joy just to revel in the beauty of these species and their own little world.

303. Sixweeks fescue (Festuca octoflora= Vulpia octoflora)- Plants of sixweeks fescue growing on a climax--and heavily grazed--mixed prairie range dominated by needle-and-thread and western wheatgrass in the Central Great Plains. Sixweeks fescue is a native cool-season annual grass that is frequently associated with dominant perennial grasses, especially under disturbance and greater degrees of use.

Sioux County, Nebraska. Late June; hard-dough phenological stage with plants progressing to senescence.

304. Panicles of sixweeks fescue- Two panicles on sixweeks fescue plants that were presented in the preceding two photographs. Sioux County, Nebraska. Late June; hard-dough phenological stage.

305. Leader of fringed sagewort (Artemisia frigida) Niobrara County, Wyoming. Late June.

306. Stockers on mixed or true prairie (take your choice)- Steers on needle-and-thread and western wheatgrass range at peak standing crop (grass plants of both these cool-season, festucoid, grass species with ripening grain and nearing dormancy). There was some blue grama on this range, but its cover was minor at this season (in this range vegetation vernal society) Stocking rate (hence, degree of use) had been on the light side of moderate or, in other words, conservative proper use that allowed more than adequate vigor of plants and abundant grain production thereby assuring both asexual and sexual reproduction. Furthermore, the Excellent range condition class (climax state) of this grassland strongly suggested that this proper stocking rate had been followed for many years.

It was also revealing that these cattle were gentle (especially by range cattle standards) with some steers so tame that they literally walked up to the photographer and licked his hand while he "took their pictures". (These slides were taken with a 28mm lens and with cattle out at a distance that showed both them and their climax range vegetation to good advantage. The author did not include slides of steers so close that viewers could only see cattle hides and not grassland.) With a lifetime experience with cattle and on ranges of every imaginable range type across this continent the author has found far more often than not that gentle, well-fed livestock and high-quality range (from both successional status and feed condition standpoints) go together. The explanation is simple, the relationship straightforward: good husbandry or sound stewartship extends to livestock and the land. They go hand-in-glove. The manager--stockman and rangemen--makes the difference in the "health" and wise use of all range resources.

This range plant community could be regarded as either true prairie or mixed prairie (Clements, 1920, see especially ps. 121-122 and 134-137), but mixed prairie was the closer fit of the two associations.

Washington County, Colorado. Mid-June-late vernal aspect. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland). K- 59 (Wheatgrass-needlegrass). SRM 607 (Wheatgrass-Needlegrass). No biotic communmity unit in Brown et al, (1998, p. 40) adequately fit this natural plant communituy: should have been a Wheatgrass or Wheatgrass-Needlegrass Series such as 142. 14 in Plains Grassland 142.1 of Cold Temperatue Grassland 142. Variant of Loamy Plains range site. High Plains- Flat to Rolling Plains Ecosystem 25d (Chapman et al., 2006).

307. Plains form in the Colorado Sandhills- A sandyland mixed prairie in the famed Sandhills of the Central Great Plains with the full array of dominant tallgrass, mid-grass, and shortgrass species. This climax range plant community also had both warm-season species (prairie sandreed and blue grama, tallgrass and shortgrass species, respectively) and cool-season species (needle-and-thread, mid-grass species). The associate grass species was western wheatgrass (another mid-grass species). There was considerable cover of sixweeks fescue, a native, cool-season, annual grass that in this year had benefitted from a cool, wet, late spring. There were no forbs for "all intents and purposes" though the author did find three or four plants of the native showy milkweed (Asclepias speciosa). Sand sagebrush at sparse cover added a woody (shrubby) component, but certainly not at foliar cover or density as to comprise anything resembling a savannah.

Eurasian annual grasses including Japanese chess or Japanese brome and cheatgrass or downy brome, both of which occur in this Colorado county (Great Plains Flora Association, 1977), were not found in this climax grassland community.

Cattle had not been turned in to this grassland range that was obviously in Excellent range condition class.

The physiography of he landscape seen here was a plains form rather than the rolling hills or choppy dunes form of the Colorado Sandhills.

Yuma County, Colorado. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES 38 (Plains Grasslands Ecosystem). No appropriate Kuchler unit because Kuchler did not have a Prairie Sandreed-dominated unit (major omission). SRM 603 (Prairie Sandreed-Needlegrass). No biotic unit at Series level in Brown et al. (1998, p. 40) beyond Plains Grassland 142.1 under Cold Temperate Grassland. Sandy Plains range site (Soil Conservation Service, 1981c). High Plains- Rolling Sand Plains ecoregion 25b (Chapman et al., 2006).

308. Seasonal progress in growth-Two "photoplots" of textbook mixed prairie in the Colorado Sandhills within the Central Great Plains showing last year's dead shoots and current year's young shoots of prairie sandreed along with this year's mature shoots of needle-and-thread and western wheatgrass (the latter two are cool-season, native, festucoid grasses) and this season's young shoots of blue grama. The small, cespitose grass plants visible as short, amber bunches were individuals of the native, cool-season, annual sixweeks fescue. There was also the "remains" of an image of a small plant of sand sagebrush (most of the image was cut off by the Epson Perfection 700 scanner) in the upper left corner of the first (vertical) slide. Plains pricklypear was of such scant cover as be no more than a trace of the range vegetation seen here. There were also trace amounts (minute cover) of buffalograss and threadleaf caric sedge.

All the range plants found in this rangeland community were native species. The indigenous grass species varied from annuals to perennials, cool-season to warm-season, tufted to sod-forming species among tallgrasses, mid-grasses, and shortgrasses. The author found no invasive annual grasses such as the Eurasian species, Japanese brome and cheatgrass (downy brome).

This mixed prairie was a cattle range, but no livestock had been turned in on it at time of photographs. Pronghorn, deer, and black-tailed jack-rabbits ranged freely on the climax vegetation of this drab-looking but pristine grassland (Excellent range condition class).

309. When a fence makes the difference- Overgrazed and properly managed (left and right of fence, respectively) cattle ranges of mixed prairie in the Colorado Sandhills of the Central Great Plains. The climax structure and composition of the properly managed range (Excellent range condition class) was shown and described in the two immediately preceding slide-caption units.

This grassland was the plains (versus rolling hills, choppy dunes) form of the Sandhills, most of which are across the stateline in Nebraska.

Neither the overgrzed range (left) or the properly manged climax-state range (right) had been grazed by cattle during the current growing season. Deer, pronghorn, and black-tailed jack-rabbits had "full run" of both cattle ranges.

The overgrazed range obviously (and conspicuously) had greater cover and density of sand sagebrush than the properly grazed range with its , climax range plant community. (There was also greater cover and density of "cow chips" or cattle dung on the overgrazed pasture; at least the Buffalo Gals would have more pickings and not have to travel so far to gather the night's supper fuel.)

The "saddest state of affairs" on the overgrazed, degraded range was the almost complete loss of the tallgrass dominant, prairie sandreed. Cover and density of the other grasses, including sixweeks fescue, did not differ noticeably or appreciably from tht of the properly grazed cattle range that was at climax state.

310. At its zenith- Two ranges of climax mixed prairie dominated by needle-and-thread and western wheatgrass in Central Great Plains. One range (first of these two photograhs) had been lightly grazed during the current growing season (grazed only in spring). Dominance of the vernal to early estival aspects (societies) by needle-and-thread, in a year of nearly perfect growing conditions for that species, was conspicuous. Other species present in this "mint" condition mixed prairie range included blue grama (the associate species), Junegrass, sixweeks fescue, Sandberg's bluegrass, plains bluegrass (Poa arida), and threadleaf sedge among the graminoids. It reiterated that a wet and cold spring had not been conducive to growth and productivity typical of western wheatgrass so that this co-dominant was underrepresented realtive to needle-and-thread in this photographs (and, as was explained in introduction to this section, other photographs taken during June, 2008). Forbs were very sparse on this Excellent condition class range. The most common forb was fringed sagewort followed by western or prairie spiderwort in number two spot. Other notable forbs included broadbeard beardtongue or broadbeard penstemon (Penstemon angustifolius) and scarlet globemallow.

The other range (second photograph) was also climax (Excellent range condition class) needle-and-thread--western wheatgrass mixed prairie. This pasture was on the other side of a state highway (Nebraska 20) from the range just described. Both pastures were the same range site. Grassland communities on both ranges had--for all intents and purposes was-- the species composition and structure. The only difference was that the first range described had been managed under light grazing whereas the second range was being utilized under heavy grazing. It seemed likely that both grzing intensities had been used in recent grazing seasons. If this was the situation differences in grazing intensity had not resulted in readily observable differences in species composition and range condition class (both pastures were in Excellent range condition class).

In some local areas on both of these ranges--though especially the second--the native annual grass, sixweeks fescue, was the associate species to needle-and-threan and western wheatgrass. This species combination was consistent with the observation that sixweeks fescue increased going into drought on eastern prairies (Weaver, 1954, p. 231) and following drought as the second weed stage of secondary succession on mixed prairie (Weaver and Albertson, 1956, ps. 143, 146).

Key feature of this range type- the physiogonomy of this cover type (ie. the general appearance or overall aspect of this range vegetation) that distinguished it as mixed prairie was dominance by midgrass species (needle-and-thread and western wheatgrass) with some associate species that were of low enough stature at maturity to be interpreted as shortgrasses, at least in these range environments (eg. blue grama, plains bluegrass, sixweeks grama). Blue grama has been interpreted as either a shortgrass species (on habitats where it reaches smaller adult size--including shorter height--and is co-dominant with buffalograss) or a midgrass (on habitats where its sexual shoots grow to heights of, say, two feet or even taller). The relevant physiogonomic feature on this rangeland cover type is that tallgrass species--at least as major components of range vegetation--were not present. The key or distinguishing features that defined this range type as mixed praire were 1) dominance by several species of midgrasses 2) along with shortgrass species and 3) conspicuous absence of tallgrass species. This latter characteristic was in contrast to some other rangeland cover types that were also mixed prairie yet with a prominent tallgrass component (eg. the Wheatgrass-Bluestem-Needlegrass [SRM 606] rangeland cover type covered below). Another key feature of the western wheatgrass--needle-and-thread type was absence of a warm-season dominant. This contrasted with the Wheatgrass-Bluestem-Needlegrass (SRM 606), covered below, and the Wheatgrass-Grama-Needlegrass (SRM 608) that was treated above.

Sioux County, Nebraska. Late June (early estival aspect). FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-57 (Grama-Needlegrass-Wheatgrass). SRM 607 (Wheatgrass-Needlegrass). Closest description in Brown et al. (1998, p. 40) was Cold Temperate Grassland 142, Plains Grassland 142.1, Mixed "Short-Grass" Series 142.13, but this missed more than hit it. Western High Plains- Sandy and Silty Tablelands Ecosystem, 25g (Chapman et al., 2001).

311. Heavy use but not necessarily overuse- Two views of a mixed prairie range with potential natural vegetation co-dominated by needle-and-thread and western wheatgrass. Photographs presented and described in the immediately preceding two-slide set showed this climax vegetation under light grazing (first photograph) and heavy grazing (second photograph). The two photographs of this current caption presented another part of the heavily grazed range introduced immediately above. These two current photographs--the first at longer and the second at shorter or closer camera distance--presented range vegetation at outer perimeter of a sacrifice area (watering facility) where this zone of overgrazing contacted that part of the same pasture that was being heavily grazed but not necessarily being overused, yet alone overgrazed. On this most heavily grazed part of the range that was NOT in the obvious sacrifice area, cover of western wheatgrass was proportionately much greater than cover of needle-and-thread as well as on the range across the road that had been lightly grazed. Cover and density of six weeks fescue was noticeably greater under heavier grazing. Relative species composition of the other range plants was essentially the same.

Did heavier defoliation (degree of use; utilization) adjacent to the sacrifice area constitute overuse? Did it amount to overgrazing resulting from longtern overuse? Obviously there had been a shift between the two climax--two decreaser species--co-dominants. Given that western wheatgrass and needle-and-thread were of the same successional status (climax) a rational case could be made that was no change relevant to range condition class so that this criterion had not changed (ie. the heavy grazed zone outside the sacrifice area was still Excellent range conditin class). Logically this conclusion could be justified as long as needle-and-thread was still present at some realistic density, cover, general abundance, herbage yield, etc.

The morals of this lesson are: 1) there is unavoidably some degree of subjectivity and some room for value judgments, 2) management goals and conclusions are not absolute, 3) conclusions can differ rationally among rangemen, and 4) which is one of the first facts given in the first lecture in Principles of Range Management (typically the introductory course), range management is an art as well as a science.

312. Differences in use- Paired plots of threadleaf sedge (Carex filifolia) under light grazing (first--vertical-- of these photographs) and heavy grazing (second--horizontal-- of these photograaphs). The lightly grazed sedge plant was on the range that presented in the first of two photographs in the two-slide set just before before the immediately preceding two-slide (first photograph above the caption that read "At its zenith"). The heavily grazed threadleaf sedge was on the range shown in the second slide in that first set and in both photographs of the immediatley preceding set. The heavily grazed sedge cn be seen in the right midground of the first photograph of the heavily grazed range.

313. Opposite sides of the fence- Two views of a fenceline contrast between the mixed prairie range having heavy grazing that was shown above and outside this pasture where there was no livestock grazing (and probably little if any grazing by anything else). The first photograph presented ungrazed mixed prairie to the right and heavily grazed mixed prairie on the left. The second photograph showed ungrazed grassland on the left and heavily grazed mixed prairie to the right.

314. Pocketed disturbance- Local range degradation (range retrogression) caused by plains pocket gopher (Geomys bursarius), a native fossorial (burrowing) rodent. A combination of burrowing and feeding on range forage by the plains pocket gopher was responsible for conversion of a climax needle-and-thread and western wheatgrass mixed prairie in the Central Great Plains into a weed patch, and alien (Eurasian) weeds at that. This gopher-degraded local patch (microhabitat of approximately 30-45 square yards) was on highway right of way (Nebraska 20) in contact with the first of two Excellent condition class ranges presented above having the caption, "At its zenith". Plants of needle-and-thread and western wheatgrass had been killed out and their place was now taken by cheatgrass and tumble mustard.

The first of these two slides showed the climax needle-and-thread--western wheatgrass sward in the background (posterior one-third to a short one-half of photograph) and the weed patch that replaced the Excellent condition vegetation in foreground (front half to two-thirds of photograph). The second slide featured exclusively the weed patch (climax mixed prairie degraded to a local community of Eurasian annual weeds). In this second slide most plants of tumble mustard were in full bloom while cheatgrass was in the soft-dough stage (ie. most plants were at maximum adult size; vegetation at peak standing crop). For whatever reason(s), plants of tumble mustard showed in the first photograph were much less mature (only in prebloom stage) than those in the second slide even though all of these plants where growing within a few feet of each other. Cheatgrass was at same phenological stage (soft-dough) in both of these photographs. Sixweeks fescue, the native annual grass that obviously had greater density and cover on heavier grazed portions of adjoining and proximate mixed prairie ranges (see above), was almost nonexistant on gopher-impacted habitats.

Soil churned up by pocket gophers was visible in both photographs though more so in the second. Such soil moverment was an example of pedoturbation, "mixing within a soil or sediment profile by various processes, such as animal burrowing, tree throw, frreeze-thaw cycles, etc. (Soil Science Society of America, 2001). Pedoturbation is one of many soil forming processes or, perhaps more precisely, one aspect of such a pedogenic process. Vaughan (1972, p. 154) stated that members of the pocket gopher family "are the most highly fossorial North American rodents".

Plains pocket gophers feed on both roots and shoots of range plants. Shoot material is eaten both aboveground as well as pulled from above down into the burrow (Internet Center for Wildlife Camage Management: http://icwdm.org/handbook/rodents/PocketGophers.asp). Also, pocket gopher herbovory includes consumption of and impact on range plants by covering with soil and/or dislodging from the soil. This is the same net result as mechanical cultivation of weeds (ie. smothering so as to prevent photosyntheesis and/or physical removal from soil). In this instance, gophers "cultivated" weeds instead of the climax grass crop. In this context, gophers themselves could be interpreted as "animal weeds" (= a pest or noxious species).

An objective appraisal of this pocket gopher impact would have to allow for the possiblity that disturbance to range vegetation as shown here was beneficial or neutral to the range and not automatically an adverse impact. When viewed in an ecosystem or landscape context and over ecological, especially successional, time scale it is certainly plausible that herbivory (including burrowing) by the native plains pocket gopher played important--perhaps essential--roles in structure and function of the range plant community. Clearly, this species and native range plants co-evolved. It would be naive, if not irresponsible, to assume that there is no natural and well-adapted interaction among them.

It must be underscored that plants which invaded the gopher-disturbed microsite were nonnative species brought onto North America by nonindigenous European man. Thus this zootic disturbance was by definition human- as well as rodent-induced. This local zootic disclimax was partially anthorpogenic in origin (caused to some extent by post-Columbian man). The relevant question would have to be, What would gopher-affected areas be like (what plants would populate the gopher-impacted rangeland) if white man had not carelessly introduced cheatgrass and tumble mustard? Perhaps the native annual sixweeks fescue would have vegetated gopher-denuded spots if Eurasian annual grasses and forbs were not present. Appearance of sixweeks fescue as a member of the second weed stage was described by Weaver and Albertson (1956, ps. 143, 146). Given the small size of gopher-disturbed patches it might be possible that grains of needle-and-thread or rhizomes of western wheatgrass, the dominant decreasers, would quickly repopulate such spots if these climax species did not have to compete with aggressive exotic weeds. It could be speculated as to this or that, but the answer cannot be known without controlled experimentation (ie. gopher-disturbed areas with Eurasian weeds compared to gopher-disturbed areas without these weeds, and with all other variables the same on both of these treatments).

315. "Mustard and custard"- Three mature plants of tumble mustard at peak blooom (first photograph) and two sexually immature (prebloom stage) plants of tumble mustard (foreground or in front of barb wire in second photograph). Tumble mustard is one of the worst weeds on some western ranges in the vast space from the Great Plains through parts of the Great Basin.

Tumble mustard got its common name from the fact that it is one of several annual forbs that breaks off near the soil surface and blows across the land scattering next year's generation as it "tumbles" with the almost always present wind (Whitson et al., 1992, 237) ). It is also one of several exotic weeds that has this unfortunate (from perspective of the undesirable spread of noxious alien plants) adaptation.

Pat Brady, sidekick to Roy Rodgers, had his share of colorful expressions. "Mustard and custard" was one he employed when things did not quite work out the way they should have. Even without Nelly Belle (Brady's jeep) his words transported the idea that there would be "happier trails" across the range withoug this annual invader and ts especially noxious (aggressively weedy) features like taking soil moisture that could have been used by valuable native forage grasses. Ya reckon Trigger and Buttermilk would take a nip or two off tumble mustard? No, Bullet wouldn't, but you can bet he'd hike his leg on it (off camera of course).

Sioux County, Nebraska. Late June.

316. Alien flowers- Inflorescence of tumble mustard. The cross-resembling arrangement of petals was basis of the traditional family name Cruciferae (crux, meaning cross and ferre, to bear). There are numerous crucifers across the Western Range some of which closely resemble each other (at least to the untrained eye). There are fewer of these "sorta look-alike" mustards in the Central Great Plains where these specimens were photographed.

Sioux County, Nebraska. Late June.

The Wheatgrass-Bluestem-Needlegrass (SRM 606) rangeland cover type is about driest form of Nebraska Sandhills grassland. It is a mixed prairie range type that is a transition between the more xeric wheatgrass mostly Agropyron smithii)-needlegrass (primarily Stipa comata) cover type (SRM 607), that is generally west of the Sandhills, and the mesic bluestem (especially Andropogon hallii)-prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia) cover type (SRM 602), perhaps the most common rangeland cover type of the Nebraska Sandhills, and that is best developed farther to the east. In this transition range type the dominants were (in relative order) western wheatgrass and needle-and-thread from SRM 607 and sand bluestem from SRM 602.

Key feature of this range type- This form, this range type, of mixed prairie included a dominant tallgrass species. The tallgrass growth form, represented primarily by sand bluestem, was not only a prominent but also a dominant component of this range plant community. This was in contrast to other rangeland cover types of mixed prairie that included only midgrass and shortgrass species such as the Wheatgrass-Needlegrass type ( SRM 607) and the Wheatgrass-Grama-Needlegrass type (SRM 608) covered above. Likewise, sand bluestem also added a dominant warm-season species, a dominant component that was lacking in the western wheatgrass--needle-and-thread type.

Two examples of the Wheatgrass-Bluestem-Needlegrass type (SRM 606) were presented below using two ranges separated by Nebraska Highway 20. Both were degraded to some degree. They were photographed in the first growing season after a prolonged drought (four to five year depending on interpretation of precipitation data). The first range was in high Fair range condition class; the second, in low Good condition. In the late vernal aspect of range vegetation shown invasion by Kentucky bluegrass and the annual bromes (mostly cheatgrass, but also Japanese chess) was conspicuous. Beneath canopy cover of these Eurasian invaders and needle-and-thread there was a relatively dense component of western wheatgrass, the foliar cover of which was atypically sparse due to a late spring (abnormally wet but cold) which resulted in unfavorable growing conditions for this species.

It was still early in the growing season for the warm-season dominant, sand bluestem, so that it had relatively low foliar cover being in earlier stages of phonological development. The same situation obtained for blue grama, the most important warm-season midgrass species. The range plant communities on these two ranges would be considerably different (with a corresponding difference in composition and structure, especially dominance) later in the warm-season phase of plant growth/development (ie. if the estival or autumnal aspects were shown versus the vernal aspect that was presented here).

The co-dominants of these two sample ranges were western wheatgrass and needle-and-thread with the latter having aspect dominance in this spring for reasons described immediately above. Sand bluestem was the obvious associate species. Other principal native species included blue grama, Junegrass, and sand dropseed. Forbs were limited with the most common species being smooth scouring rush or horsetail (Equisteum laevigatum). Widely scattered plants of prickly poppy (Argemone polyanthemos) presented a strinking appearance that far exceeded this species' contribution to plant cover in the range community.

317. Western edge of Nebraska Sandhills- Degraded form (Fair range condition class) of Sandhills mixed prairie of the western wheatgrass-sand bluestem-needle--and--thread type. The range cover type represented by this range is characterized by dominance of the two major cool-season midgrass species of this Central Great Plains region and one of the two major warm-season tallgrass species of this region. In addition to these domiants other major species on this range included the native perennial grass species of blue grama and Junegrass, the naturalized perennial Kentucky bluegrass, and the three annaul grass species of cheatgrass or downy brome, Japanese chess or brome, and sixweeks fescue. There were some plants of threadleaf sedge. The main forb was western ragweed, but it was not common. There were some other forb species, but these weer of little consquence.

Cherry County, Nebraska Late June (early estival aspect). FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-60 (Wheatgrass-Bluestem-Needlegrass). SRM 607 (Wheatgrass-Needlegrass). Closest description in Brown et al. (1998, p. 40) was Cold Temperate Grassland 142, Plains Grassland 142.1, Mixed "Short-Grass" Series 142.13, but this missed more than hit it. Nebraska Sand Hills- Sand Hills Ecoregion, 44a (Chapman et al., 2001).

318. Not the best; not the worst- Sward of the western wheatgrass-sand bluestem-needle--and--thread Sandhills mixed prairie range (Fair range condition class) presented in the immediately preceding slide. Species present in this "photo-quadrant" included western wheatgrass, needle-and-thread, blue grama, Junegrass, Kentucky bluegrass, downy brome or cheatgrass, Japanese chess or Japanese brome, and western ragweed.

319. Not perfect, but better- Example of Nebraska Sandhills mixed prairie of the western wheatgrass-sand bluestem-needle--and--thread range type. These two land-sweeping photographs presented physiogonomy and strucure of this grassland at a stage approaching climax stage (Good range condition class). The range presented hee was on the opposite side of Nebraska Highway 20 straight across from the Fair condition range described in the two immediately preceding photographs. This range had considerably greater species diversity than the Fair condition range. Cover of sand bluestem, the only tallgrass species with much cover or density (little bluestem was represented by a few, widely scattered individuals) was conspicuously greater than on the Fair condition range. (Sand bluestem was prominent in center foreground of both photographs, especially the second one.) Likewise, cover and density of needle-and-thread and Junegrass were considerably greater on the Good condition class range, but general and relative abundances of western wheatgrass and blue grama were about the same on both pastures. There was very little cover of Kentucky bluegrass, an alien though naturalized invader, on this Good condition range. There was much less cover of the naturalized exotic bromes on the Good condition range, but general abundance of sixweeks fescue was about the same on both of these pastures.

This Good condition range had more forbs but less forb cover than the Fair condition range. The major range forb on this Good pasture was common horsetail (Equisteum arvense). Western ragweed was the second most common forb, but it had less cover than on the Fair condition range. Prickly poppy (Argemone polyanthemos) was more common on the higher condition class range, but this biennial was far from common.

Details of the sward of this Good condition range was presented in the next photograph.

320. More like it- Sward of Nebraska Sandhills mixed prairie of the western wheatgrass-sand bluestem-needle--and--thread range type. This was a "photo-plot" of the Good condition class range featured in the two immediately preceding photographs. Sand bluestem (the largest, tallest grass in center foreground) was conspicuous. Needle-and-thread, one of the regional cool-season dominants, was the most abundant species in the sample of range vegetation presented here. Other species visible in this slide included western wheatgrass, blue grama, cheatgrass (very limited) and the two forbs, common horsetail and western ragweed.

321. Mark of a good sandhills steward- Sandhills in the Great Plains are one of the wind-sensitive of all range ecosystems in North America. The beauty and productivity of these marvelous grassland ranges belies their fragility to wind-caused soil erosion. A commonsense and ideal practice to prevent wind erosion on ranges in the Nebraska Sandhills is the lashing together of discarded automotive tires (often with the universal standby of used baling wire) around utility poles within cattle-rubbing distance. Range animals, especially bovids like cattle and buffalo, love to rub on poles and tree trunks (both of which are scarce on this rangeland). This rubbing or bovine form of scratching is more common in spring when animals are shedding their winter coats or when they are heavily infested with lice. The though yet vulnerable range plants would be trampled out around posts, power poles, cottonwood snags, etc. where animals habitually rub. Loss of plant cover causes a "break" in the sward and a resulting "opening" on the land awaiting soil removal by eolian forces.

Some faithful stewards like power company linesmen responsible for this power corridor or the owner of this range took the appropriate preventive action to protect this valuable yet sensitive grazing land from what could quickly become severe wind erosion. A well-earned tip of the hat to the hard workers who did their part in the wise use management of this grassland.

Cherry County, Nebraska Late June (early estival aspect).

Ecotonal Mixed Prairie-Ponderosa Pine Forest Mosaic

A landscapre mosaic of mixed prairie and foothill ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forest presented the range vegetation mapper with a confusing or, at least, ambiguous patchwork of range plant communities in the Central Great Plains. This vegetation was at the juncture of the vast Great Plains grassland complex and an outlier form of the Rocky Mountain Front Range, a variant of plains-mountain foothills range vegetation. It was in the Western Nebraska-Eastern Wyoming Upland south of the Goshen Hole Lowland and the Pine Ridge Escarpment, north of the Colordo Piedmont, and west of the Platte River valley (Fenneman, 1931, ps. 17-19).

This transitional mixture of range plant communitieswas treated in the following section.

Mixed prairie at its edge- Mixed prairie in Central Great Plains nearing the northern end of the Rocky Mountain Front Range. Dominants were needle-and-thread, western wheatgrass, sideoats grama, and blue grama with prominence of species varying over short distances. Also preent was soapweed (Yucca glauca), threadleaf caric sedge (Carex filifolia), annual sunflower (Helianthus annuus), Japanese chess or Japanese brome (Bromus japonicus) and the forb known variously as prairie stickleaf, Adonis stickleaf, Adonis blazingstar, and desert blazingstar (Mentzelia multiflora).

Kimble County, Nebraska. Mid-July. Cheyenne Table, Lodgepole Creek Valley. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-60 (Wheatgrass-Bluestem-Needlegrass). SRM 608 (Wheatgrass-Grama-Needlegrass). Closest description in Brown et al. (1998, p. 40) was Cold Temperate Grassland 142, Plains Grassland 142.1, Mixed "Short-Grass" Series 142.13. Range Site: Shallow (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2005). Western High Plains- Flat to Rolling Cropland Ecoregion 25d (Chapman et al., 2001).

A sticky specimen- Upper shoot of a forb in family blazingstar, stickleaf or loasa family (Loasaceae) called by such commonnames as prairie stickleaf, Adonis stickleaf, Adonis blazingstar, and desert blazingstar (Mentzelia multiflora).

Kimble County, Nebraska. Mid-July.

Where prairie meets pine- Upper elevational terminus of a mixed prairie at edge of a scrub forest of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum) in the Western Nebraska-Eastern Wyoming Upland immediately south of the Goshen Hole Lowland, north of the Colordo Piedmont, and west of the Platte River Valley (Fenneman, 1931, ps. 17-19).

Principal grasses included needle-and-thread, little bluestem, sideoats grama, and Junegrass. Blue grama was a locally important species. There was limited local cover of the Eurasian annual grass, Japanese chess or Japanese brome (Bromus japonicus).The major shrub was skunkbush sumac (Rhus triloba= R. aromatica). Other locally important shrubs included was squaw or western red currant (Ribes cereum); winterfat (Eurotia lanata); plains pricklypear (Opuntia polycantha); and soapweed yucca (Yucca glauca). Two more-conspicuous-than-common forbs included winged wild-buckwheat (Eriogonum alatum) and crownleaf evening-primrose (Oenothera coronopifolia) while wild alfalfa or slimflower scurfpea (Psoralea tenuifolia) was present at lesser cover.

In absence of fire there were some small, invading individuals of Rocky Mountain juniper.

Laramie County, Wyoming. Mid-July. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-60 (Wheatgrass-Bluestem-Needlegrass). Not an SRM cover type designation for Grama-Needlegrass-Bluestem mixed prairie. Closest description in Brown et al. (1998, p. 40) was Cold Temperate Grassland 142, Plains Grassland 142.1, Mixed "Short-Grass" Series 142.13. High Plains- Pine Bluffs and Hills Ecoregion 25f (Chapman et al., 2004).

Prairie plants and pines- Mixed prairie that developed immediately below a forest of scrub ponderosa pine and Rocky Mountain juniper trees in the Western Nebraska-Eastern Wyoming Upland immediately north of the Colordo Piedmont (Fenneman, 1931, ps. 17-19). In the first or upper "photoplot" the dominant grass was little bluestem while needle-and-thread and sideoats grama were associate species and Junegrass was a "second-stringer" species. In the second "photoplot" needle-and-thread and sideoats grama were co-dominants and little bluestem was the associate species. Plants of blue grama and the naturalized annual grass, Japanese brome were also present at much less cover and lower density.

Skunkbush sumac was the major shrub; there was also cover of squaw or red wax current, winterfat, plains pricklypear, and soapweed yucca. Forbs were extremely limited with the two most conspicuous being winged wild-buckwheat and crownleaf evening-primrose. Wild alfalfa or slimflower scurfpea was a minor forb

Coniferous invader- Large seedling (left mid-ground) and small sapling (right mid-ground) of Rocky Mountain juniper had invaded a mixed prairie of needle-and-thread, little bluestem, and sideoats grama. There was also Junegrass and blue grama though at considerably lower cover and density. Japanese brome was present at even lower cover.

In the foreground around the large rock was crown cover of skunkbush sumac and squaw or wax current.

So tall its wings are in the sky- An individual of winged wild-buckwheat (Eriogonum alatum) growing on an upper elevational limit of mixed prairie in the Western Nebraska-Eastern Wyoming Upland of the Great Plains. Plants of the perennial winged wild-buckwheat frequently grow to considerable size from large taproots. This particular specimen was almost eight feet tall. Apparently no animals (other than perhaps pollen-feeding insects) had fed on this specific plant.

Neighboring plants included needle-and-thread, sideoats grama little bluestem, and Rocky Mountain juniper (two trees right distant background).

Laramie County, Wyoming. Mid-July; ripening fruit stage of phenology.

Wings on the high prairie- Detailed views of the flower cluster and clusters of fruit (achenes) of winged wild-buckwheat growing on a neeedle-and-thread-sideoats grama-little bluestem mixed prairie at edge of a low-elevation scrub ponderosa pine forest. The three-winged achene of this species is basis of its common name.

Winged wild-buckwheat made it into Notes on Western Range Forbs (Dayton, 1960, ps. 66-67) where it was stted that this large species ranges from the Southern Great Plains (Llano Estacado) up to the Central Great Plains in southern Wyoming and westward through Utah and Arizona. This large taprooted perennial also extends to the pine and spruce (Picea spp.) forests of the Rocky Mountains.

Dayton (1960, p. 67) reported that this tall-growing forb is a fair forage species for sheep and goats but avoided by cattle.

Laramie County, Wyoming. Mid-July; ripening fruit stage of phenology.

Crown on upper mixed prairie- Crownleaf evening-primrose (Oenothera coronopifolia) on a mixed prairie of needle-and-thread, sideoats grama, little bluestem and Junegrass with skunkbush sumac, soapweed yucca, winterfat, and squaw or red wax current that developed at edge of a scrub forest of ponderosa pine.

Laramie County, Wyoming. Mid-July; full-bloom stage of phenology.

NOTE: for purposes of clarity, convenience, and illustration of the continuity of range vegetation the following images of a scrub ponderosa pine-Rocky Mountain juniper forest growing at edge of this mixed paririe were included below.

At the edge and inside- Forest of scrub ponderosa pine and Rocky Mountain juniper at edge of a needle-and-thread--sideoats grama--little bluestem--Junegrass mixed prairie in the Western Nebraska-Eastern Wyoming Upland immediately north of the Colordo Piedmont and south of the Goshen Hole Lowland in the Great Plains physiographic province (Fenneman, 1931, ps. 17-19). First slide showed the contacts of the grassland and forest communities.

Second slide presented a sapling-size Rocky Mountain juniper (right immediate foreground) and three sapling-sized ponderosa pines (midground) with an herbaceous understorey of needle-and-thread, sieoats grama, little bluestem, blue grama, Junegrass. Widely spaced shrubs were present in the herbaceous understorey. Shrubs included squaw or red wax current, skunkbush sumac, and soapweed yucca. Immediately following slide presented this understorey in greater detail.

Laramie County, Wyoming. Mid-July. Mixed prairie: FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-60 (Wheatgrass-Bluestem-Needlegrass). Not an SRM cover type designation for a Grama-Needlegrass-Bluestem mixed prairie. Closest description in Brown et al. (1998, p. 40) was Cold Temperate Grassland 142, Plains Grassland 142.1, Mixed "Short-Grass" Series 142.13. Ponderosa pine forest: FRES N0. 21 (Ponderosa Pine Forest & Woodland Ecosystem), K-15 (Eastern Ponderosa Pine Forest). SAF 237 (Interior Ponderosa Pine), SRM 110 (Ponderosa Pine-Grassland) variant. Closest description in Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) was Cold Temperate Forest and Woodland 1242, Rocky Mountain Montane Donifer Forest 122.6, Yellow Pine Series 122.62. High Plains- Pine Bluffs and Hills Ecoregion 25f (Chapman et al., 2004).

Herbaceous transition- "Photoquadrant" of herbaceous understorey at contact of a scrub forest of ponderosa pine and Rocky Mountain juniper and a mixed prairie dominated by needle-and-thread, sideoats grama, and little bluestem in the Western Nebraska-Eastern Wyoming Upland of the Great Plains province. Additional plant species in this view included soapweed yucca, blue grama, Junegrass, Japanese brome, crownleaf evening-primrose, and wild alfalfa or slimflower scurfpea.

Laramie County, Wyoming. Mid-July. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-60 (Wheatgrass-Bluestem-Needlegrass). Not an SRM cover type designation for a Grama-Needlegrass-Bluestem mixed prairie. Closest description in Brown et al. (1998, p. 40) was Cold Temperate Grassland 142, Plains Grassland 142.1, Mixed "Short-Grass" Series 142.13. Ponderosa pine forest: FRES N0. 21 (Ponderosa Pine Forest & Woodland Ecosystem), K-15 (Eastern Ponderosa Pine Forest). SAF 237 (Interior Ponderosa Pine). SRM 110 (Ponderosa Pine-Grassland) variant. Closest description in Brown et al. (1998, p. 37) was Cold Temperate Forest and Woodland 1242, Rocky Mountain Montane Donifer Forest 122.6, Yellow Pine Series 122.62. High Plains- Pine Bluffs and Hills Ecoregion 25f (Chapman et al., 2004).

Foothills Bluegrass Mixed Prairie

Another ambiguous grassland range type perhaps best described as foothills bluegrass mixed prairie developed in the foothills of the Sourhern Rocky Mountains (Laramie Mountains) and situated at margins of needle & thread-blue grama-western wheatgrass mixed prairie (Kuchler 57), blue grama-buffalograss mixed prairie (Kuchler 58), and ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir montane forest (Kuchler 17) are relatively small, isolated grasslands of mid-height grasses, especially the larger species most notably Canby's bluegrass (Poa canbyi) and big bluegrass (P. ampla). Presented in this section was an example of these foothill grasslands some of which were dominated by larger bluegrasses and that appeared as a form of mixed prairie. These granitic (generally igneous parent material)-based range sites (Igneous and Shallow Igneous, Foothills and Mountains Southeast) were described by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (1998) as having bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum) as the most abundant, if not the dominant, range plant species. Percent composition of bluebunch wheatgrass was shown for different soil series (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1998, ps. 280-309 passim) at values from 35% down to 15%. Slimstem muhly (Muhlenbergia filiculmis) and threetip sagebrush (Artemisia tripartita= A. trifida) were listed as major species of the potential plant community (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1998). There was no reference to Canby's or big bluegrass, period.

This description differed drastically from the units of potential natural vegetation mapped and described by Kuchler (1964, 1966) as given in the preceding paragraph (see especially Kuchler, 1964, units 64 and 66). Mapping and describing a bluebunch wheatgrass-dominated grassland (more like an eastern island of the Palouse Prairie) was also inconsistent with Society for Range Management (SRM) rangeland types described in Shiflet (1994), specifically SRM 606, 607, 609 that represented range vegetation on this region. Instead the NRCS (1998) categorizations were essentially those of SRM rangeland cover types (SRM 302, 303, 304, or some combinations thereof) given for the Northern Rocky Mountains province (Shiflet, 1994, ps. 27-29). This was true in particular with regard to range plant species dominating deteriorated ranges described as dominated by bluebunch wheatgrass.

The range vegetation shown and described in this section (a Rogert-Rock outcrop; Shallow Igneous range site) did not fit the range plant community descriptions of the Natural Resources Conservation Service (1998), for either climax or stages of range degradation. Nor did ecological site descriptions (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2006) match this vegetation. Neither did this bluegrass-dominated e featured range plant communities described in published rangeland cover types (Shiflet, 1994). Rather, this range vegetation was dominated overwhelmingly by various bluegrassees, especially Canby's bluegrass (P. canbyi), the dominant species, and the similar big bluegrass (P. ampla). Grass species from other conterminous mixed prairie types (notably blue grama;, to lesser extent, western wheatgrass; and with less cover yet, needle-and-thread, for example) were present but quite limited. Other bluegrass species included (and in relative order based on general abundance, cover, etc.) Sandberg bluegrass (P. secunda), nodding bluegrass (P. reflexa), and-though restricted to small and more mesic depression-a Poa species with an immature panicle that suggested--but could not be positively identified as-- fowl bluegrass (P. palustris). Mutton bluegerass (Poa fendleriana) was present growing on an adjacent area, but was not found on the range that was photographed and presented here.

Almost all green grass plants were Poa species with mature (or nearly so) spikelets. The range vegetation presented here was composed in overwhelmingly quantity (based on general cover, density, aspect abundance) of bluegrasses, especially Canby bluegrass, the single dominant species. Again, blue grama, western wheatgrass, and needle-thread (the zonal climax dominants) were present, but ranking well behind Canby, big, and Sandberg bluegrasses. Junegrass was present at relative abundance approaching that of trace quantity. Also present at edges of the gravely environment of this foothill bluegrass range was sheep fescue (Festuca ovina var. rybergii) and a trace of what appeared to be King's spikefescue (Leucopoa kingii). Also present (and at typically high densities) were threetip sagebrush (A. tripartita subsp. rupicola) and fringed sagewort (Artemisia frigida) as well as the conspicuous forbs, miner's candle (Cryptantha virgata= Oreocarya virgata) of the Boraganaceae and tufted fleabane (Erigerion caespitosus). Another common forb on this range was the umbel, whidkbroom parsley (Harbouria trachypleura).

The range site descriptions provided in the Soil Survey for the Albany County, Wyoming area (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1998) simply put were not appropriate for--they did not fit--this range vegetation in any successional stage. Ecological site descriptions (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2006) did not even list Canby's bluegrass. It was possible that Sandberg's bluegrass was used as a generic name that included Canby's and big bluegrasses. The NRCS Plant Guide for Sandberg bluegrass interpreted this as a Sandberg bluegrass complex that included big bluegrass, Canby's bluegrass, and several recognized Poa species. This was consistent with the treatment in Barkworth et al. (2007, ps. 586-688) wherein the former P. canbyi was reintepreted as a "smooth, larger" ecotype of P. secunda subsp. secunda. The continent-wide treatment by Barkworth et al. (2997) contrasted with the manual for Wyoming (Skinner et al., 1999, ps. 78-82) in which the species P. canbyi was retained and distinguished clearly from P. secunda subsp. secunda. Mr. Bob Mountain, U.S. Forest Service, explained (personal communication) to this author that throughout this plains and mountains complex of range types and sites there were many Poa species yet Forest Service range workers on the Medicine Bow National Forest, which neighbored with the range described below, generally tried to distinguish among these species. For example, in doing range vegetation inventories Forest Service rangemen listed separately, to the extent practicable, such species as P. canbyi, P. ampla, P. fendleriana, P. secunda (= P. sandbergii), P. nervosa, P. palustris, and P. reflexa. Lumping several bluegrass species under a generic Sandberg's bluegrass --if indeed such was the case for Natural Resources Conservation Service (1998, 2006) range site descriptions--could be overly simplistic and lead to extreme confusion. Even if Canby's bluegrass is an ecotype of P. secunda subsp. secunda it is different from the ecotype of P. secunda subsp. secunda that is Sandberg's bluegrass. Both of these species, forms, ecotypes, etc. were present on the rangeland shown and presented below. If Sandberg's bluegrass is is an obvious increaser on this range site, it is still possible (erhaps even highly probable) that the larger species, ecotypes, or whatever like Canby's and big bluegrass are likely to be decreasers.

Whatever the explanation, neither climax or any of the published states of range retrogression (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1998, p. 113; Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2006) described, at least not adequately, the foothills bluegrass mixed prairie that was shown and described in the following section.

Contrary to published range site descriptions and rangeland productivity tables (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1998) the bluegrass-foothills grassland was not an island of the Palouse Prairie. Nor again (as explained above) was this range vegetation, which was most likely at some higher successional state (at least subclimax) covered in any of the Kuchler (1964, 1966) units of potential natural vegetation or in rangeland cover types (Shiflet, 1994). In fact, the most telling evidence that something was wrong or incomplete in published descriptions of this climax.or potential natural vegetation was the glaring contraction between Kuchler (1964, 1966) and Natural Resources Conservation Service (1998) designations. The Natural Resources Conservation Service (1998, p. 113) described this range vegetation as, in effect, an eastern extension of Palouse Prairie (bluebunch wheatgrass-dominated with various other wheatgrasses and Idaho dfescue) whereas Kuchler (1964, 1966) mapped it as shortgrass mixed prairie (grama-buffalograss). by were in extreme conflict. In the Kuchler (1966) map version provided in Garrison et al. (1977) this potential natural vegetation was mapped as unit 58 (Grama-Buffalograss; Bouteloua-Buchloe), but based on the Natural Resources Conservation Service (1998) range site description it would be Kuchler (1966) unit 43 (Fescue-Wheatgrass; Festuca-Agropyron) or unit 44 (Wheatgrass-Bluegrass; Agropyron-Poa). Obviously this was an extreme conflict where both cannot be correct. In this author's view, neither was correct.

Prof. J. Daniel Rodgers, University of Wyoming, explained to this author (personal communiction) that Canby's bluegrass was a common dominant species, especially above the foothills and up to the pine forests, along the Rocky Mountain Front Range and neighboring areas. Caby's bluegrass is especially common and dominant on gravelly, granitic soils such as those derived from Sherman granite. On such range sites Canby's bluegrass is frequently to typically associated with threetip sagebrush. Dr. Rodgers further explained that, as of that time, there was not a published, readily available description of range vegetation for this area. In essence there is not a published description of the foothill bluegrass or Canby bluegrass range type, at least there is not a readily accessible description at time of this writing.

Irrespective of whether Canby's bluegrass is a distinct species or an ecotype of Sandberg's bluegrass or is a decreaser or an increaser, and thus the foothills bluegrass mixed prairie be climax (potential natural) vegetation or a higher seral stage, the indisputable fact remained that the Canby bluegrass-threetip sagebrush range plant community described below was representative of typical ranges throughout this area.

Photographs were taken in early summer (late June) following an abnormal year (an unusually moist to wet yet cold spring. In this general locality grasses like western wheatgrass and bluebunch wheatgrass took several weeks longer to reach advanced phenological stages. In fact, western wheatgrass generally did not advance to maturity as in typical years. Hence, the photographed range vegetation was atypical with some species such as bluebunch wheatgrass under-represented (if present it was in earlier stages of phenology). That noted, it was emphasized that this photographer did not observe bluebunch wheatgrass even at earlier stages of growth. If this species was present--as seemed plausable given its documented occurrence in this area (Skinner et al., 1999, p. 155)-- it was as a minor component based on cover, density, and general abundance. Even western wheatgrass growing on this range was more common on low-lying, more mesic microsites (see below) than on other local habitats of this gravelly, shallow edaphic environment.

Relatively high cover of threetip sagebrush and fringed sagewort in the range plant community presented below was consistent with brief range site descriptions by the Natural Resource Conservation Service (1998). Occurrence of fringed sagewort fit descriptions of all the above cited SRM rangeland cover types (SRM 302, 303, 304, 606, 607, 609) so as to be of limited value for distinguishing among several range types including those of contiguous cover types. Rather it was presence of threetip sagebrush that was of telling importance for this range type.

This range vegetation was clearly dominated by Canby bluegrass with others like big and Sandberg's bluegrass as associate species. Given the conditions and general situation described above it seemed likely that the range vegetation featured here was in some stage of retrogression. The extent of range deteioration (departure ferom whatever the climax was) could not be determined though it likely was not lower on the sere than subclimax. As stressed above, these species were not listed as being component species in any of the published range site or rangeland cover type descriptions in any state of range degradation. Thorough description of range sites and types would require inclusion of large species of native bluegrasses which made up most of the range vegetation at a stage in development of the natural plant community.

This foothill mixed prairie vegetation was featured immediately below. It was presented because it was it is a widespread range plant community in what appeared as a broad ecotone between Great Plains grassland and Rocky Mountains forests, scrublands, and parks. Detailed discussion, including that of the relevant literature, was provided to point out emphatically that this range vegetation was not described in readily available material (if at all) and certainly not to the extent of most other units of range vegetation. Furthermore, much of the existing descriptions are contradictory, conflicting, and confusing. This was due to such things as inconsistency among authorities and ambiguity in plant names. Hopefully somebody will recognize this glaring omission and write descriptions of this and associated rangeland cover types as well as more precise reports of range sites.

322. Foothills range in the Laramie Range- Canby's (Canby) bluegrass-dominated mixed prairie with Wyoming threetip sagebrush (Artemisia tripartita subsp. rupicola = A. trifida) the associate plant species on the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. Other important range plants included blue grama, Sandberg bluegrass (readily distinguishable from other bluegrasses by smaller size and more advanced maturity or phenological development); fringed or plains sagewort (A. frigida); and small, isolated colonies of western wheatgrass in local depressions. Junegrass was present as sparsely scattered individuals. There were also some scattered plants of what appeared to be big bluegrass (Poa ampla). These plants were partly distinguishable from P. canbyi by their wider leaf blades, but identification was not completely positive because plants that were thought to be big bluegrass had not yet produced panicles. There were some plants that may have been King's spikefescue (Leucopoa kingii), but these were not in flower and could not be identified either. There were a few forb species present including tufted fleabane (Erigeron caespitosus), whiskbroom parsley (Harbouria trachypleura), and miner's candle (Cryptantha virgata= Oreocarya virgata). Individual plants of these species were conspicuous in a "sea of grass shoots", but none of them contributed substantial cover (relative or absolute) or were of notable density or herbage production.

Needle-and-thread, which was the "super-abundant"dominant of other rangeland cover types in the mixed prairie of adjoining and lower elevation landscapes, was "conspicuous by its absence" in the foothill range vegetation described in this section. Likewise, bluebunch wheatgrass, reportedly the climax dominant of this range site, appeared to be absent ("totally missing") from this range. Unusually cold and wet conditions in late winter throughout spring could have delayed development of any bluebunch wheatgrass that was present, but this worker did not observe any plant material--either dead, decaying tissue from the preceding year (eg. naked spikes, weathered leaves or culms) or young, energing shoots of the current year--that evenly faintly resembled this species. Likewise, this observer did not notice any slimstem muhly, the other reported (Natural Rsesouces Conservation Service, 1998) major decreaser grass for this range site. Slimstem muhly is especially well-adapted to shallow granitic soils (Skinner et al., 1999, p. 202) like those on this range. It was hihgly likely that both bluebunch wheatgrass and slimstem muhly were on this range at trace to slight amounts and that past overgrazing had eliminated both of these perennial decreasers. Since earliest days of occupation by whiteman this area was heavily grazed by livestock--as beasts of transport for all sorts of travelers and commerical ventures (including the first transcontentintal railroad) as well as commodities produced by sheepmen and cattlemen, alike.

The unique geologic features on this rangeland combined with the "ambiguous" range plant community as detailed above resulted in an intriguing and unusually romatic "rangescape" The geologic formation featured here was the Sherman Mountains (composed of Sherman Granite), remnants of the Sherman batholith, in the larger Laramie Range (Laramie Uplift). The Laramie Range is one of two prongs or forks of the Front Range in this area, the Medicine Bow Range being the other prong. Both of these geologic prongs or forks are in turn part of the eastern slope (the front edge) of the Rocky Mountains known as the Front Range (Lageson and Spearing, 1988, ps. 23-26; Edwards and Frost, 2000). The mountain building, the process of orogeny, by which the Rocky Mountains were formed takes its name from the Laramie Range: Laramide Orogeny. This geologic event took place during the Late Creatceous Epoch rougly 80 to 70 million up to 55 to 35 million years before present. Northern and southern portions of Laramie Range are comprised of two kinds or forms of bedrock. The bedrock of the southern part (the parent material of soils in this area) is Sherman Granite formed in the Late Precambrian Geologic Time and that crystalized to its present state about 1.4 billion years before present during the early Mesoproterozoic Geologic Eon (Lageson and Spearing, 1988, ps. 25-26; Edwards and Frost, 2000).

The landscape shown here was on the so-called Gangplank, a large alluvian fan out of the Laramie Range which, being an uplifted gradual slope, served as an easier overland route (including for the transcontentintal railroaad) across this northern part of the Front Range. Use as a trade route unavoidably resulted in heavy grazing by livestock which could have resulted in range degradation and replacement of species like bluebunch wheatgrass and slimstem muhly by species like Cnby's bluegrass and blue grama. In current times knowledgable local folks make reference to bluegrass, blue grama, and "short sagebrush" but not to other species. Whatever was or might be, this widespread range vegetation was clearly 1) bluegrass-dominated mixed prairie that was 2) not included in readily accessible descriptions of range types and range sites.

Albany County, Wyoming. Late June; late vernal to early estival aspect. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). No appropriate units given in Kuchler (1964, 1966) or Society for Range Management (Shiflet, 1994). Range site: Shallow Igneous, 15-19 inch precipitation, Foothills and Mountains Southeast (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1998, 2006). Southern Rockies- Foothill Shrublands Ecoregion, 21d ( Chapman et al., 2003).

323. Sherman Mountains mixed prairie- On the "rangescape" of the Sherman Mountains a bluegrass-dominated mixed prairie of bunchgrass form (phusiogonomy) had developed (perhaps it had retrogressed from a higher successional stage). Canby bluegrass was the overwhelming dominant (based on cover--both foliar and basal--as well as density and, especially, biomass) with Wyoming threetip sagebrush the associate species. The other major (common) range species were blue grama, Sandberg's bluegrass, western wheatgrass (limited to local depressions), fringed or plains sagewort, Junegrass, and big bluegrass. The latter two species were present as individual plants or in small, isolated patches. Big bluegrass was tentatively distinguished from plants of Canby's bluegrass that was at peak inflorescence (grain in hard-dough stage). Plants that were thought to be big bluegrass had conspicuously wider leaves and a deeper-green color than Canby's bluegrass. Sandberg's bluegrass had already fully matured and was entering dormancy. Forbs were incidental and included tufted fleabane, whiskbroom parsley, and miner's candle.

Needle-and-thread, the regional dominant of Central Great Plains grasslands (and extremely abundant in this year), was absent--completely missing--from this range type. Such was also the case for bluebunch wheatgrass, the reported (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1998, 2006)) climax, decreaser, dominant for this range site. This observer doubted that either of these grasses was a major species on the shallow, droughty soil of this fairly widespread range type. Slimstem muhly was the other dominant decreaser grass on this range site according to descriptions by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (1998, 2006) and this species also was not a major component of the range plant community on this range. Overgrazing as far back as the frontier era may have contributed to elimination of these two designated decreasers from this range. Local grass-growing conditions preceding these photographs of current-season vegetative growth was another partial explanation for the obvious species composition of this range plant community. An ususually cold and wet spring had hampered development of late-season species like bluebunch wheatgrass throughout the Laramie Range prior to time of these photographs (Mr. Bob Mountain, M edicine Bow National Forest, personal communication). This situation could not have explained absence of previous year's plant material of bluebunch wheatgrss or slimstem muhly that should have been present if these species grew on this range. Lack of such herbaceous reside (at least in any meaningful amounts) substantiated absence of these species in the vegetation of this range.

The rock outcrops of smaller boulders on this range were of Sherman Granite, a coarse-grained igneous rock of the early Mesoproterozoic Geologic Eon (about 1.4 billion years before present), that make up much of the Sherman Batholith. A batholith is a large geologic mass of igneous intrusive (plutonic) rock derived from magma that cools and ascends to the land surface. Frost et al.(2000) concluded that the Sherman Batholith was most likely caused by partial melting of rocks derived from Earth's mantle.

324. Physiogonomy and structure of foothill mixed prairie- A bunchgrass form of mixed prairie dominated by Canby's bluegrass (with Wyoming threetip sagebrush as associate) on the Sherman Mountains of the Laramie Range. This "photo-plot" was taken at camera focal length to feature the physiogonomy and architecture (structure as to layers of vegetation). Other abundant (based on apparent density, cover, and standing crop) plant species included blue grama, western wheatgrass (localized dense colonies limited to small depressions), Sandberg bluegrass, fringed or plains sagewort, Junegrass, and big bluegrass. Forbs were incidental (at least in the spring society) though conspicuous. These included tufted fleabane, miner's candle, and whiskbroom parsley.

This range plant community was that of late spring-early summer in a year of atypically wet and cold conditions commencing in late winter. Mr. Bob Mountain, Medicine Bow National Forest, explained to this author (personal commjnication) that weather conditions earlier in the plant-growing season had delayed development of range plants, especially at higher elevations. This was particularily pronounced in certain species of grasses including bluebunch wheatgrass. It was plausible that bluebunch wheatgrass and slimstem muhly, the two species listed as decreaser dominants in descriptions of this (and similar) range sites (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1998, 2006), had much lower cover and biomaass in this area so as to be under-represented in this range vegetation. That would not, however, explain the lack of dead and weathered plant material of bluebunch wheatgrass and slimstem muhly that would have persisted from the previous year if these two species grew on this range. The only logical concluisions were that 1) this range was in some state of departure from a bluebunch wheatgrass-dominated climax or 2) bluebunch wheatgrass is not the potential dominant of this range site represented by the existing vegetation.

The range plant community shown here was that of the later vernal society. If other major species such as bluebunch wheatgrass were present on this range--and this rangeman certainly did not find them--they would have formed a later-season society (ie. they would not likely have been at sexually reproductive stages at this point even in a year of more typical rowing conditions). Grassland dominated by bluegrass (especially Canby's and big bluegrass) and "short sagebrush" was the range vegetation that local people in the coffee shops described for this locality to the aurthor. That was the range plant community presented in this slide.

Sherman Granite, a distinctive coarse-grained hornblende granite, comprises a major part of the Sherman batholith of the Laramie Range. Gravel derived in large part from Sherman Granite can cover up to approximately half of the surface of certain soils such as on the Rogert-rock Outcrop unit of this rangeland (Natural Resources Conservtion Service, 1998). This gravel was visible on the land surface in this photograph as well as several other slides of this range vegetation presented below. Composition of Sherman Granite was provided by Edwards and Frost (2000) and Frost et al. (2000).

325. Species composition of a foothill mixed prairie- Canby's bluegrass-dominated a bluegrass mixed prairie at edge of the Front Range and Central Great Plains. Wyoming threetip sagebrush was the associate species. Other important range plants included Wyoming threetip sagebrush, blue grama, western wheatgrass (in slight depressions that afforded a more mesic microhabitat), Sandberg bluegrass, fringed or plains sagewort, and big bluegrass. The latter was tentatively identified only, because plants that appeared to be big bluegrass had not yet produced inflorescences and this author being "a stranger to these parts" could not identify them from vegetative characteristics. A wider leaf and deeper green-color separated them from plants of Canby's bluegrass, this latter of which was unquestionably identified from spikelet features (shown below).

Successional status of this range vegetation was not known. The range site description (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1998; 2006) described the climax vegetation as being dominated by bluebunch wheatgrass slimstem muhly, and threetip sagebrush with Sandberg bluegrass and threestem sagebrush increasing under range retrogression. This author did not find any bluebunch wheatgrass on this range, but it had been a belated spring with cold,wet conditions from late winter until the present early summer so that some species like bluebunch wheatgrass were "far behind schedule" while residual herbage was highly weathered making identification of dead plant material difficult to impossible for all but local folks familar with the species at all stages of phenology and decomposition. It was also possible that Canby's bluegrass comprises most of the vernal society of this mixead prairie and later-maturing species would make up estival or autumnal societies. Nonetheless, Canby's bluegrass was dominant, even based on examination of decayed-weathered herbage. Bluebunch wheatgrass was a minor component of this range plant community at best.

The question with regard to successional state--hence, range condition class--of this range vegetation hinged on the grazong response of Canby's bluegrass. If it is an increaser like Sandberg's bluegrass this range was at substantial departure from climax (probably in Fair range condition class). If, on the other hand, Canby's bluegrass is a natural dominant (decreaser) this range plant community would rate substantially higher, perhaps being at subclimax stage. Wyoming threetip sagebrush is an increaser and its presence at high levels of abundance (relative cover) strongly suggested some degree of range degradation, again possibly Fair to low Good condition class.

Regardless of the ecological condition of this range it was representative of much of the rangeland in this area, and was presented as such.

326. Stand of Canby's bluegrass- Local "photo-sample" of the population of Canby's bluegrass that dominated a bunchgrass mixed prairie in the foothills of the Laramie Range. Wyoming threetip sagebrush was the associate range plant on this rangeland.

Sherman Granite, especially conspicuous in this photograph, was the primary parent material of this soil (Rogert-Rock Outcrop). Readers wishing more details regarding Sherman Granite were referred to the report by Frost et al. (1999).

327. Laramie Range mixed prairie- A bunchgrass form of mixed prairie dominated by Canby's bluegrass and Wyoming threetip sagebrush had developed on s shallow soil (Rogert-Rock Outcrop) adorned by large rocks (small boulders) of Sherman Granite. Sandberg's bluegrass was the secon most abundant grass. It was readily distinguished from Canby's bluegrass by smaller size and phenological stage approaching senescence. Tufted fleabane and miner's candle were two forb species present in the "photo-quadrants" shown here. There were also some plants of fringed or plains sagewort. Sherman Granite provides a harsh habitat for various speecies of lichen that decorate the already colorful rocks of this range type. Lichen are part of the range vegetation even though this mutualistic relationship between fungus and algae does not constitute a vascular plant.

General absence of shortgrass species other than the notable blue grama denoted this as a midgrass mixed prairie. This grassland had the physiogonomy, general height, and a species composition with an obvious affinity of regional Great Plains grassland such that this was mixed prairie. It was not, however, mixed prairie in the structural feature of having prominent layers of shortgrass and/or tallgrass species along with that of the midgrass.

328. Mixed prairie at the farthest reaches of its domain- Sward of a mixed prairie of the predominant bunchgrass form at the extreme western margin of the Great Plains just below the foothills of the Front Range. This local species-rich stand was dominated by Canby's bluegrass "assisted" with an array of other rmajor grasses including big bluegrass, Sandberg's bluegrass, sheep fescue, sixweek's fescue, western wheatgrass, and blue grama.. Cheatgrass or downy brome and crested wheatgrass were minor grass species, but their presence was evidence of the naturalization of these two introduced Eurasian species. There were no forbs or shrubs in this range plant community.

This range vegetation was lower in elevation though in close proximity to the foothill form of mixed prairie dominated by Canby's bluegrass and Wyoming threetip sagebrush described immediately above. The range environment of this exclusively grass-comprised plant community with deeper, more mesic soil was much less harsh than that of the bluegrass-threetip sagebrush community on the foothill range in the Sherman Mountains. Dominance of both range plant communities by Canby's bluegrass and presence of other grass species "shared in common" was evidence of the vegetational affinity of these two forms of midgrass mixed prairie.

Laramie County, Wyoming. Late June; early estival aspect. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). No appropriate units given in Kuchler (1964, 1966) or Society for Range Management (Shiflet, 1994). High Plains- Moderate Relief Plains Ecoregion, 25c ( Chapman et al., 2003).

329. Cool-season mixed prairie- At the western boundary of the Great Plains just below the foothills of the Front Range a mixed prairie had developed that was made up almost exclusively of cool-season grasses. Sheep fescue (Festuca ovina var. rydbergii or, perhaps, F. brachyphylla subsp. saximontana=F. saximontana= F. brachyphylla) was the overwhelming dominant, but Canby's bluegrass, Sandberg's bluegrass, and western wheatgrass were also well-represented in this local stand from which forbs and shrubs were absent. Also more or less absent were naturalized introduced species like cheatgrass and crested wheatgrass. This range vegetation--the range ecosystem generally--had a remarkable rate of herbage (biomass) productivity, but species richness was noticably less than of most other range plant communities in this general area.

This was a more mesic form of mixed prairie than the mixed prairie at higher elevtions in the foothills of the Front Range to which a close affinity obviously existed in both close proximity and the commonality of Canby's bluegrass. This was predominately a midgrass mixed prairie with no tallgrass species while the shortgrass element was limited to such species as Sandberg's bluegrass and blue grama, of which no plants representing these two species were in this local stand.

330. Standing tall- Local stand of foothills mixed prairie consisting of Canby's bluegrass (overall dominant), sheep fescue, and western wheatgrass. The lattter of these species was abnormally under-developed for this time of year due to a prolongued cold yet wet late winter through to present. An example of a stunted western wheatgrass plant was in lower left corner. On much of the habitat of this foothills form of mixed prairie western wheatgrass forms plants that are much smaller than typical and which appear almost cespitose in spite of the usual creeping rhizomes of this species. These upland, often gravelly, environments are marginal for this more mesic of the major midgrasses.

Festucoid grasses clearly predominate at latitudes this far north.

331. Canby's bluegrass (Poa canbyi)- The taxon represented by these specimens is either distinct species (Poa canbyi) or a larger-growing ecotype of P. secunda subsp. secunda.The latter interpretation was used in the official, authoritative Flora of North America (Barkworth, 2007, ps. 586-588) whereas recognition of P. canbyi is the traditional treatment that was still used in Grasses of Wyoming, the state grass manual, (Skinner et al., 1999, p.78-81, 82) and, which according to Hitchcock and Chase (1951, p. 938), traced back to 1906.

On initial sighting of this plant on the range one's first impression is something like , "Schzam! Sandberg's bluegrass grown under irrigation, fertilization, and on auxins". In other words, individuals of this taxon appear as "giant Sandberg's bluegrass" or "Sandberg's bluegrass except its too big". Canby bluegrass reaches heights roughly twice those of Sandberg bluegrass (Skinner et al., 1999, ps. 78, 97). Whatever the most precise name and taxonomic interpretation, Canby's bluegrass is both widespread in the northern Front Range and different morphologically from anything else. The larger size of Canby's bluegrass led to selection and release by the Soil Conservation Service Plant Materials Center and Washington and Idaho Agricultural Experiment Stations of the cultivar, Canbar.

Albany County, Wyoming. Late June; grain in hard-dough stage.

332. Panicle of Canby's bluegrass- Panicles of Canby's bluegrass vary from narrow to relatively wide and from compact to open (Hitchcock and Chase, 1951, p. 134; Skinner et al., 1999, p. 81). They are generally heavy grain-bearing inflorescences. These examples were typical, at least the most commonly morphological form in those found growing on this range.

Albany County, Wyoming. Late June; grain in hard-dough stage.

333. Spikelets of Canby's bluegrass- Two closer-in views of parts of Canby's bluegrass panicles showing greater detail of spikelets. Areas of darker coloration (pigmentation) on glumes and, especially, lemmas and paleas is a common feature of this species (Skinner et al., 1999, p. 82). These spikelets were somewhat weathered so that such pigmentation had faded and was less prominent than on younger spikelets.

Albany County, Wyoming. Late June; grain in grain-ripe stage.

Taxonomy note: Canby's bluegrass (Poa cambyi) has been recognized by various authorities since early in the Twentieth Century. Rhydberg (k922, ps. 81) recognized and used the binomial P. canbyi whereas Coulter and Nelson (1909) did not. P. canbyii was noted in the National Range Handbook (Forest Service, 1941, p. G95) after it was remarked that Poa constituted one of the "...most taxonomically difficult genera of the grass family". Hitchcock and Chase (1951, ps.103, 134-135) recognized P. canbyii and placed it in the group, Scabrellae, along with P. secunda, P. scabrella, and P. gracillima. Great Plains Flora Association (1986, p. 1211) remarked that P. canbyi "was not well marked" in the Great Plains Region and instead was transitional to P. sandbergii (=P. secunda), and P. juncifolia.

Then Kellogg (1985) employed various techniques, including transplant experiments and morphological analyses, and concluded that many recognized (published) species in what she described as "the Poa secunda complex" were "all part of the single widespread species, P. secunda". Kellogg (1985) included P. canbyi along with P. ampla, P. incurva, P. gracillima, P. juncifolia, and even, P. scabrella (all of the Scabrellae group and much of group Nevadenses of Hitchcock and Chase [1951, p. 103]) as comprising in her "Poa secunda complex". Barkworth et al. (2007, ps. 586-588) accepted the Kellogg (1985) "P. secunda complex" and split it into two subspecies. In A Field Guide to Wyoming Grasses (Skinner, 2010, ps.254-267) accepted this taxonomic interpretation and lumped four of the six species of Kellogg (1985) (plus one more) that are found in Wyoming as subspecies of P. secunda. In this lumped--and highly variable-- P. secunda species the former P. canbyi became part of P. secunda subsp. secunda (Skinner, 2010, ps. 266-267). Previously in Grasses of Wyoming, the predecessor to Skinner (2010), Skinner et al., (1999, ps. 78, 82, 82) recognized P. canbyi (as well as P. ampla and P. juncifolia).

The transplant trials of Kellogg (1985) would appear to be definitive. Her seminal work would be more convincing if subsequent experiments, especially by other workers, were conducted and corroborated the original transplant experiments. Nonetheless, work by Kellogg (1985), which harkens back to the classic transplant studies and analysis by Clausen et al. (1940), suggested (at least to this authror) that Canby's bluegrass was merely an ecotype--a more robust, later-maturing one--of Poa Secunda subsp. secunda.

334. Stand of sheep fescue (Festuca ovina var. rydbergii= F. saximontana=F. brachyphylla subsp. saximontana)- One of the larger, ranker-growing grasses on the mixed prairie of the Front Range of the Central Rocky Mountains was sheep fescue for which the scientific name Festuca ovina var. rydbergii was used in Grasses of Wyoming (Skinner et al., 1999, p. 66, 68). This author-photographer did not encounter this species as other than a local dominant. It was not a widespread dominant species like Canby's bluegrass though it was a more abundant than Junegrass. Clements (1936, p. 258) interpreted Festuca ovina as oe of eight perdominants, widespread dominants that bind associations together into climaxes or, the synonym, formations) (Clements, 1936, ps. 258, 271). Some of the other perdominants that bound the five grassland associations into the were needle-and-thread, western wheatgrass, blue grama, sand dropseed, and Junegrasss (Clements, 1936, p. 258). However, Clements (1920) used F. ovina as an "umbrella species" to include the widespread F. idahoensis. This usage was consistent with the taxonomy and nomenclature of that time as, for example, in Coulter and Nelson (1909, p. 75) and as explained in Barkworth et al. (2007, p. 422).

The most recent and presumedly most authoritative (though not necessarily synonymous with most taxonomically correct) treatment of F.ovina was that in Barkworth et al. (2007, ps. 428-432) in which F. ovina was was restricted to a species introduced into North America from Eurasia so that it was necessary to "transplant" all native forms, variants, etc. previously included with F. ovina into other Festuca species and subspecies. Into which of these one or more species and/or subspecies F. ovina var. rydbergii belongs was not explained in Barkworth et al. (2007, p. 422). If F. ovina var. rydbergii was "transplanted" according to the taxonomic organization in Flora of North America it seemed that F. saximontana or F. brachyphylla were the most likely candidates. Or perhaps the older taxon of F. brachyphylla subsp. saximontana was more likely to be the correct taxon for F. ovina var. rydbergii. Hitchcock and Chase (1951, p. 74) showed F. saximontana as an earlier binominal for F. ovina. Kaul et al. (2006, p.676) used F. saximontana for specimens in the far western Nebraska Panhandle that had previously been identified as (Festuca ovina var. rydbergi, but Skinner et al. (1999, p. 67-68) retained (Festuca ovina var. rydbergi for specimens and plants on Wyoming range up to subalpine elevations.

Whatever the most nearly scientifically correct scientific name, this is a large fescue of one kind or another that was locally dominant over foothills mixed prairie.

Laramie County, Wyoming. Late June; grain-shatter stage.

335. Sheep fescue or, less commonly, Rocky Mountain fescue (Festuca ovina var rydbergii=F. brachyphylla subsp. saximontana=F. saximontana or F. brachyphylla, ?, or whatever)-Examples of the robust fescue (whatever the species, subspecies) that was a local dominant on mixed prairie in the foothills of the Front Range, a transition zone between Great Plains grassland and Rocky Mountain forests and parks.

Laramie County, Wyoming. Late June; hard-dough to grain-ripe phenological stages.

336. Panicle and spikelets of sheep fescue- Flower cluster and its fundamental units, spikelets, of some large and robust, Festuca taxon that was an important local dominant on mixed prairie in the foothills that functioned as an ectone between Central Great Plains grassland and Rocky Mountain forests, shrublands, and meadows. Based on the grass manual for Wyoming (and published by that state's land grant university) this plant was Festuca ovina var rydbergii. It was not clear (at least to this author) to which taxon this fescue fit in Barkworth et al. (2007, ps. 428-432), but most likely F. saximontana or F. brachyphylla.

Laramie County, Wyoming. Late June; hard-dough to grain-ripe stages of phenology.

337. A showier specimen- Robust plant of sheep or Rocky Mountain fescue growing on Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata wyomingensis)-bunchgrass steppe in the Powder River Basin of the Northern Great Plains.This ungrazed plant was growing just outside the fence of a moderately grazed cattle range (also pronghorn and mule deer) in a favorable-moisture year.

Natrona County, Wyoming. Mid-June (late spring); peak standing crop, milk to soft dough grain stage.

338. Cast of characters on Central Great Plains grassland- Important range plants on a mixed prairie range included green needlegrass (left and rear), sheep or Rocky Mountain fescue (center foreground), western wheatgrass (rear background), western yarrow, and Nuttal's sego lily or Nuttal's mariposa lily (Calochortus nuttallii).

Natrona County, Wyoming. Mid-June (late spring); peak standing crop, milk to soft dough grain stage.

Something to ponder (or, maybe, an imponderable): In addition to the infinite scientific phenomena there is the phenomenon of science itself, especially the scientific method. Disussions above (and elsewhere in this publication) made it clear that the matter of nomenclature and systematic arrangement of taxa is a matter that remains far from settled. This author suspects that such will never be settled--and certainly not ever to the satisfaction of all concerned. Sciencies is, afterall, a human affair and therefore subject to features of human nature including an array from admiration through envy, jealousy, and contempt as well as independent thought and defense of such thought. The nature of science is that mere mortals cannot know absolute truth, though in theory that ultimate goal becomes asyomptic. The author of Range Types suspects that in addition to, if not trumping, these aspects there is the matter of earning a livelihood (at least enough of one) so as to be permitted to continue a career in science.

As long as a sizeable part of that livelihood is contingent upon publication, especially numbers of peer-reviewed publications, it is seemingly impossible that the matter of scientific names for various taxa will ever be scientifically decided. At least not to the degree that matters of science are ultimately solved and a point of inquiry closed as is the case in "pure sciences" like Physics or Mathematics. Based on a reading of the history of Agrostology (all fields of Systematic Botany for that matter), numerous examples of which were noted herein, it seemed certain to the current author that the matter of scientific names of taxa will never be resolved. There is simply too much money (relatively speaking; by academic standards of living) to be made garnering another publication by simply pointing out that such and such a binominal was in error and "my latest research" (ie. my for-promotion-publication) showed that the more-nearly correct (better in some way) scientific name was thus and such (ie. Poa canbyi is really just an ecotype of P. secunda subsp. secunda).

Even certain areas of the Life Sciences can resolve a question in the science of Life. Biochemists elucidate and settle permanently the details of metabolic pathways. Eventually, after adequate experimentation and related forms of scientific inquiry the last enzyme or the final cofactor is fitted into the pathway puzzle and we move on to other uncharted biochemical seas. Not so taxonomists. They hash and rehash and then go back to the original hash never to settle the matter. Anatomy eventually becomes a "dead field for further research". There are professors of anatomy (at least professors who teach Anatomy), but they conduct research in related though different fields. Not taxonomists. They contemplate the femur, rationalize why the name of femure was in in error, should not have been named femur, and finally conclude (show scientifically as it were) that femur it is just the skeletal equivalent of an ecotype of the pelvis. Presto, another publication (for tenure, promotion, or at least a little bump up in salary).

As long as no more species are being discovered and written up (the typical situation, especially for vascular plants, in well-studied, thoroughly explored country) the only to get more publications is to rename and/or phylogenetically rearrange the know species. The alternative is to "close the herd book" on research in Plant Taxonomy, and provide much less employment for taxonomists (as is now the the situation for anatomists). Instead, agrostologists discover and map clades, which ties Plant Systematics to Molecular Biology (so it is bound to be more scientific, right?), and requirements for survival (Publish or Perish) are met.

That explains the winners in the taxonomy racket as it is currently practiced by some of its steller practitioners. The losers are just about everybody else. Ecologists, range and forest scientists, agronomists, even botanists besides taxonomists have to become fluent in both the old and new languages for which one traslation is incongruent with the preceding translations. What actually did this ecologist mean when he used the binominal Festuca ovina?. Some nomenclatural changes are essential and actually reduce confusion, but others gain little if anything except to create more confusion. The first (and maybe the last) description of some unit of vegetation was made when this taller, bigger-clumped bluegrass was Poa canbyi and this littlier bluegrass was Poa sandbergii. Now decades later, how can another vegetation scientist know whether P. secunda subsp. secunda was the P. canbyi or P. sandbergii or just plain P. secunda used by the earlier describing scientist?

Finally, ponder this. How can so many outstanding (supposedly) agrostologists look at the same plant (same taxonomic entity), even the same type specimen, and interpret it in so many different ways. How can one agrostologist or group of agrostologists conclude that the same plant (or specimen) is a different species, in a different species, or even in another genus than the one chosen by preceding agrostologists? They even construct dichotomous keys based on readily observed and key morphological features that lump and split and relump in as many different arrangements as there are taxonomists doing the arranging. Hitchcock and Chase (1951) saw this plant as this, Gould (1975) saw it as that, and Barkworth et al. (2007) saw it a third way. Is Taxonomy mostly in the eye of the beholder? If so, is this really science? How can instructors present Plant Systematics as solid science to undergraduates when there are four names for Canby's bluegrass in four different manuals all written by agrostologists? Do agrostologists ever ponder this? Do they care?

339. Tufted fleabane (Erigeron caespitosus)- This specimen of a widely distributed DWC (Damn White Composite) was growing on the Canby bluegrass-Wyoming threetip sagebrush-dominated, foothill mixed prairie range presented above. The head of this species is typically disproportionately large for the rest of the shoot which makes it a conspicuously showy forb though one of relatively restricted species range.

Erion is Greek for wool which was obviouly in reference to pubescence of shoots and, especially, leaves.

Albany County, Wyoming. Late June; peak bloom stage of phenology.

340. Whiskbroom parsley (Harbouria trachypleura)- This member of the Umbelliferae was one of the more common forbs in the foothills of the Front Range. It was frequent on Canby's bluegrass-dominated mixed prairie and true mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus) shrubland like those in the Laramie Range extension of the Front Range as well as at lower elevtion in the western part of Great Plains grasslands. This is not a particularly large member of the carrot or parsley family, but it is a native forb (unlike many other species of the Umbelligerae that naturalized in North America). This specimen was growing on a droughty environment at edge of a stand of true mountain mahogany in the Sherman Mountains of the Laramie Range.

Laramie County, Wyoming. Late June; full-bloom stage.

341. Umbel of whiskbroom parsley- An example of the rather sparse inflorescence on the specimen introduced immediately above. This is a native umbelliferous forb found in the Front Range and adjoining parts of western Great Plains.

Laramie County, Wyoming. Late June; full-bloom stage.

342. More light on a bluegrass prairie (as if it was needed)- Miner's candle (Cryptantha virgata= Oreocarya virgata) growing on a bluegrass-dominated mixed prairie in the Laramie Mountains. This species is a member of the Boraginaceae (borage family). It was one of a very few forbs on this mixed prairie range in the Sherman Mountains of the Laramie Range.

Albany County, Wyoming. Late June; full-bloom phenological stage.

Grasslands of the Wyoming Basin (including shrub savanna forms)

The Wyoming Basin physiographic province contacts the Great Plains (central portion) and the Colorado Plateau physiographic provinces (Fenneman, 1931, p. 133) and has a plains topography similar to that of the Great Plains and Colorado Plateau (Fenneman, 1931, p. 139). It follows that the natural vegetation is also quite similar. In describing and discussing Wyoming grasslands Knight et al. (2014, ps. 83-108 passim) treated those of the Wyoming Basin and the Great Plains together.They also recognized that some of the range vegettaion in the Wyoming Basin was more of the sagebrush shrub steppe type (Knight et al., 2014, ps. 109-141 passim). Plus, there are always ecotones (transition zones) among the various range plant communities making for inconvenient "pigeon-holing".

Most of the grasslands of the Wyoming Basin are of the mixed prairie types so the most rational treatment of these grassland range types seemed to be their inclusion in this chapter.

For classic treatment of the Wyoming Plateau physiographic province (and, for that matter, all North American provinces) Fenneman, 1931, 133-149) is still the ultimate.

The following six slide/caption units showed and described a mosaic or spatial arrangement of similar yet distinctly different range plant communities that developed on threee different range sites and narrow ecotones among them on clay soils in the Wyoming Basin in southwestern Wyoming. One of these range plant communities was distinctly grassland, a consociation of western wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii), one was either shrubland or sagebrush shrub steppe dominated by Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisis tridentata subsp. wyomingensis), and the third plant community was a combination of grass and shrub that could best be described as a grass-shrub savanna.

These three different range site/plant plant communities were contiguous (in contact with each other) yet so distinctive as to result in nearly "fence-line contrasts" in some local areas and as gradual ecotones or transition zones in other local spaces.

Given this interspatial contact or connectedness yet natural separation and distinctiveness of range vegetation this section was included both here and in the chapter, Miscellaneous Scrub Types - IA under the heading, Wyoming Basin Saltdesert Scrub.

Pattern of soil habitats and their range vegetation- Part of a landscape mosaic of three range plant communities corresonding to three range sites: 1) Clayey, 2) Dense Clay, and 3) Silty Swale. The foreground in this view was part of the Dense Clay range site that was a savanna of low sagebrush (Artemisia arbuscula) and birdsfoot sagebrush (A. pedatifida) with the dominant herbaceous species being Sandberg's blue grass (Poa sandbergii= P. secunda) with other major grsses being Canby's bluegrass (P. canbyi) and Indian reicegrass and lesser cover of the naturalizeed Eurasian annual grass species cheatgrass or downy brome (Bromus tectorum) and Japanese chess or Japanese brome (B. japonicus).

The midground in this image was a degraded Silty Swale range site dominated by Wyoming big sagebrush and with sticky or yellow rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus) as the associate shrub species and an herbaceous understorey of western wheatgrass and the two annual Bromus species.

Bureau of Land Management, Rock Springs field office, Sweetwater County, Wyoming. Sandberg bluegrass-low sagebrush savanna was FRES No. 29 (Sagebrush Shrubland Ecosystem). K-49 (Sagebrush Steppe), variant thereof. SRM 406 (Low Sagebrush). Not a "good fit" in Brown et al. (1998, p. 40), but closest was Sagebrush Series 152.11, Great Basin Desertscrub 152.1 of Cold Temperate Desertland 152. Wyoming big sagebrush-sticky rabbitbrush was the same except for being SRM 403 (Wyoming Big Sagebrush). Dense Clay and Silty Swale range sites, respectively. (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2004; Natural Resources Conservation Service, ecological sit descriptions, online). Wyoming Basin- Rolling Sagebrush Steppe ecoregion 18a (Chapman et al., 2004).

Heavy clay, frost heaving, and western wheatgrass- Concociation of western wheatgrass (and likely some thickspike wheatgrass [A. dasystachyum= A. lanceolatus]) on a Clayey range site in the Wyoming Basin of southwestern Wyoming. This grassland presented an amazing example of extreme frost heaving. The rhizomatous wheatgrass species are wonderfully adapted to this form of edaphic habitat.

At various points along its outer edges this heavy clay soil-determined wheatgrass grassland contacted 1) a savanna of low sagebrush and Sandberg's bluegrass (with some birdfoot sagebrush, Canby's bluegrass, Indian ricegrass, cheatgrass,and Japanese brome) on a Dense Clay range site and 2) a former western wheatgrass community degraded (probably mostly by overgrazing) to a Wyoming big sagebrush-sticky rabbitbrush shrubland with some western wheatgrass and less cover of the two annual Bromus species.

Bureau of Land Management, Rock Springs field office, Sweetwater County, Wyoming. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-59 (Wheatgrass-Needlegrass). SRM 610 (Wheatgrass). Not a "good fit" in Brown et al. (1998, p. 40), but closest was Wheatgrass Series 142.21, Great Basin Shrub-Grassland 142.2 of Cold Temperate Grassland 142. Clayey range site (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2004; Natural Resources Conservation Service, ecological sit descriptions, online). Wyoming Basin- Rolling Sagebrush Steppe ecoregion 18a (Chapman et al., 2004).

Dense and low- A savanna of Sandberg's bluegrass and low sagebrush (Artemisia arbuscula) on a Dense Clay range site that was part of a vegetational mosaic ranging from a western wheatgrass-dominated grassland on a heavy clay soil to a former western wheatgrass community on a swale of silty soil that was degraded to a Wyoming big sagebrush-sticky rabbitbrush shrubland.

This slide presented physiogonomy, overall structure, and pattern of the range vegetation (including plant dispersion); general topography of the rangeland; and surface of the high-clay content soil of this savanna ecosystem that was in the Wyoming Basin physiographic province.

Bureau of Land Management, Rock Springs field office, Sweetwater County, Wyoming. FRES No. 29 (Sagebrush Shrubland Ecosystem). K-49 (Sagebrush Steppe), variant thereof. SRM 406 (Low Sagebrush). Not a "good fit" in Brown et al. (1998, p. 40), but closest was Sagebrush Series 152.11, Great Basin Desertscrub 152.1 of Cold Temperate Desertland 152. Dense Clay range site (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2004; Natural Resources Conservation Service, ecological sit descriptions, online). Wyoming Basin- Rolling Sagebrush Steppe ecoregion 18a (Chapman et al., 2004).

Clay, dense; plants, sort of sparse- A savanna of co-dominants Sandberg's bluegrass and low sagebrush with other species including birdfoot sagerush, Canby's bluegrass, Indian ricegrass, cheatgrass, and Japanese brome that developed on a range site of dense in the Wyoming Basin physiographic province in southwest Wyoming. At some points (local microsites) this range plant community was more of a shrubland with some grass cover while in other microhabitats it was more of a savanna form of grassland with much less shrub cover. Hence, any designation of shrubland, grassland, or shrub-grass (or grass-shrub) savanna was arbitrary.

This range plant community was conterminous with two other range sites: 1) Clayey that was a consociation of western wheatgrass and 2) Silty Swale that was a deteriorated western wheatgrass grassland degraded to a shrubland of Wyoming big sagebrush and sticky rabbitbrush.

A characteristic cracked soil surface typical of high clay content was discernible in these two slides.

Starting to run low on clay- Edge of a Dense Clay range site dominated by Sandberg's bluegrass and with low sagebrush as the associate species (a grass-shrub savanna) contacting the edge of a Silty Swale range site dominated by Wyoming big sagebrush (right mid-ground to upper right corner). Other species in the savanna included birdfoot sagebrush, Canby's bluegrass, Indian ricegrass, cheatgrass, and Japanese chess. In the swale, Wyoming big sagebrush had sticky rabbitbrush as its associate with an interrupted herbaceous understorey of western wheatgrass and lesser cover of cheatgrass and Japanese chess.

This range vegetation was part of a landscape mosaic that also included a western wheatgrass dominated- grassland on heavy clay. These three distinctive soil-determined range site plant communities were contiguous in the Wyoming Basin in southwestern Wyoming.

Where there was a lot less clay- A swale that formed on a silty soil in the Wyoming Basin supported a Wyoming big sagebrush-sticky rabbibrush shrubland resulting from degradation (most likely due to past overgrazing) of a western wheatgrass (and some thickspike wheatgrass) grassland. There was an irregular or sporadic understorey comprised mostly of western wheatgrass with the two naturalized Eurasian annuals, cheatgrass or downy brome and Japanese brome or Japanese chess.

This swale was surrounded by a consociation of western wheatgrass (some thickspike wheatgrass) that developed on a Clayey range site and a savanna of low sagebrush and Sandberg's bluegrass (with some birdfoot sagebrush, Canby's bluegrass, Indian ricegrass, cheatgrass, and Japanese chess) on a Dense Clay range site.

Bureau of Land Management, Rock Springs field office, Sweetwater County, Wyoming. FRES No. 29 (Sagebrush Shrubland Ecosystem). K-49 (Sagebrush Steppe), variant thereof. SRM 403 (Wyoming Big Sagebrush). Sagebrush Series 152.11, Great Basin Desertscrub 152.1 of Cold Temperate Desertland 152 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Silty Swale range site (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2004; Natural Resources Conservation Service, ecological sit descriptions, online). Wyoming Basin- Rolling Sagebrush Steppe ecoregion 18a (Chapman et al., 2004).

Montane Grasslands

Various types or forms of montane grasslands could be interpreted as range types of the mixed prairie. These bunchgrass-dominated mountain grasslands are unique and perhaps distinctive from mixed prairie, but they contact or approach borders of mixed prairie at its western margins on the Great Plains, Colorado Piedmont, and Southwestern Tablelands physiographic provinces and/or ecoregions. These range types are generally found in the Southern Rocky Mountains from the Front Range into the interior mountains and are, therefore, typically present at higher elevations where they contact and merge with forests or woodlands of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides). Savannas of these trees and cespitose grasses constitute separate range types or variants of the montane steppes depending on one's interpretation of the range vegetation. The most extensive of these mountain or plains-border grasslands in the Southern Rocky Mountain Region are defined by dominance of Festuca and Muhlembergia species.

The Fescue-Mountain Muhly (Festuca arizonica- F. thurberi- Muhlenbergia montana) Prairie is one of these This range plant community is one of the smallest units (K-46) of Kuchler potential natural vegetation. Even more pronounced, this is one of the smaller grassland types in North America though it is part--a unique and distinctively part--of the expansive Fescue Grasslands that include the much larger and better-known Palouse Prairie. K-46 was not included in Kuchler (1964, 1966), but rather appeared in the map of Garrison et al. (1977) as a unit of Mountain Grassland Ecosystem (FRES No. 36) which extends from the Northern Rocky Mountains and Palouse Prairie Region southward and reaching east of the Continental Divide. Garrison et al. (1977, ps. 47-48) specifically mentioned central Colorado and listed Muhlembergia as an associated grass genera . From his monoclimax perspective Clements (1920, ps. 149-152) included the fescue-defined grasslands as part of the Bunch-grass Prairie (Agropyron-Stipa Association), but Dodd (in Gould and Shaw, 1983, ps. 352-354) in following the Clementsian model recognized a seperate Fescue Prairie (Festuca consociation) as distinct from the Palouse Prairie (Agropyron-Festuca Association). The Fescue Prairie, especially the Rough Fescue (Festuca scabrella complex) Grasslands, contacts the Quaking Aspen Parklands thereby forming a vegetational mosaic including an aspen-fescue savanna. A quaking aspen-Arizona-Thurber's fescue savanna occurs in the Southern Rocky Mountains extending slightly east of the Continental Divide (featured below). This pattern of vegetation clearly showed the vegetational affinity of the two grasslands that were dominanted by Festuca species.

The southern extension of aspen-fescue savanna is a variant of the larger or general ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forest- or, sometimes, woodland-bunchgrass forest type. This range vegetation was described as a rangeland cover type designated in Shiflet (1994, ps. 8-9) for the Pacific Northwest as Ponerosa Pine-Grass (SRM 110), but there was not the equivalent range type for the Southwest. The type in southwestern North America was described as "Arizona fescue mountain rangelands" by Clary (1978, ps. 205-207) who explained that these "primarily mountainous forested ranges" were distributed from northern Colorado to southern New Mexico at the western edge of the Great Plains and westwarc to northcentral Arizona. On these "ponderosa pine-bunchgrass ranges" mountain muhly was the most common associate grass species. Gambel oak (Quercus gambelii) was the major wody angiosperm although quaking aspen was present in certain areas especially at higher elevations (Clary, 1978, p. 205). These savannahs would be included in the Society of American Foresters (Eyre, 1980) forest cover types designated as Interior Ponderosa Pine (SAF 237) and Aspen (SAF 217). The description of SAF 237 (Eyre, 1980, p. 114-115) noted importance of Arizona fescue and mountain muhly, but that of SAF 217 (Eyre, 1980, p. 96-97) was apparently content with mentioning "an herbaceous understory". Arnold (1955) regarded Arizona fescue and mountain muhly as the most desirable species in the ponderosa pine zone of northern Arizona. On the Manitou Experimental Forest in the Southern Rockies (Colorado Front Range) Johnson (1956) and Schuster (1964) found that mountain muhly and Arizona fescue were the most important grasses as well as the most heavily grazed species on ponderosa pine-bunchgrass ranges. These findings were consistent with those of Clary and Pearson (1969) which found that these two species were the most preferred native grasses under summer cattle grazing on ponderosa pine-bunchgrass ranges in northern Arizona.

Most reports of the ponderosa pine-bunchgrass range have concentrated on practical management either from a timber and/or range orientation (Clary and Ffolliott, 1966; Clary, 1975; Currie, 1976) or, more receltly, from that aimed toward ecosystem restoration often built around use of prescribed fire (Andariese and Covington, 1986; Sackett and Haase, 1998; Bailey and Covington, 2002; Laughlin et al., 2008). These two management outlooks are complementary; in fact, they essentially aim at the same thing only using different words for explanations. Restoration of pristine ponderosa pine forests or savannas would be "dream-come-true" return of the virgin range. (This is not to imply that such is possible or, even, practical, but only to remark as to the relevance of most research done with this range vegetation.)

The grassland (prairie) form of fescue-muhly range has apparently been studied much less than the forest or savana forms with Festuca-Muhlembergia understories Rydberg (1915; 1921) described grasslands in the subalpine and montane zones of the Rocky Mountains for which he listed several Festuca and Muhlembergia species especially for mountain slopes and grassy hillsides. Festuca arizonica and F. thurberi were major species that were found only in the Southern Rockies though on both montane and subalpine zones, especially on drier southern slopes. In describing "xerophytic grasslands" of northern Colorado, Ramaley (1919) recognized a "Festuca Bunch Grass Association" that was "dominated by tall cespitose species of Festuca" and a "Muhlenbergia-Danthonia Consociation" that was part of the "Dry Grassland Asswociation of the Montane Zone". Costello (1944) described "major forage types" in Colorado and Wyoming. He reported that while Thurber fescue was sparse in subalpine and alpine grasslands it was locally abundant in the aspen type especially under continued sheep grazing where Arizona fescue was one of several grasses that were more scattered. On the ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir type Arizona fescue and, especially, mountain muhly were dominant (Costello, 1944). On the park type at lower elevations mountain muhly was second in importance to blue grama whereras on higher elevation parks Arizona and Thurber fescue were present as major grass species though less important than sedges and two other grasses. (Costello, 1944).

The unique, spatially small Arizona and Thurber's fescue-mountain muhly grasslands (Kuchler unit 46) were described by Dick-Peddie (1993, 103-104, 110) as fescue-muhly subalpine-montane grassland of several dominance types (associations): Festuca thurberi, F. thurberi-F. arizonica, and Festuca arizonica-Muhlenbergia montana Associations in the Fescue Series and Blepharoneuron tricholepis-M. montana Association in the Pine Dropseed-Mountain Muhly Series. Dick-Peddie (1999, p. 104) used the terms "Association" and "community" interchangeably. Two published range site descriptions (Soil Conservation Service, 1975. Ps. 42-43) could be applied to the Fescue-Muhly type: 1) Mountain Outwash and, less appropriate for this grassland, 2) Subalpine Loam. All dominants respond as decreasers.

The present author found the Arizona (with some Thurber's) fescue and mountain muhly herbaceous community in three forms within relatively short distances of each other (all in one mid-size county): 1) grassland as mixed or midgrass prairie (complete with mima mounds), 2) understorey of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) grove, and 3) understorey of open ponderosa pine woodland and forest up to Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii)-dominated open forest. The first two of these range communities had developed into a vegetational "patchwork" (mosaic) arrangement. Wet and semi-wet meadows also occurred in this pattern of range plant communities.Fescue-mountain muhly prairie and quaking aspen-fescue-muhly groves were in direct contact (conterminous) with each other. Ponderosa pine-bunchgrass range had likely contacted the other two types (and probably still did at some locations), but human land use patterns (roads, logging, residential development, etc. ) had broken points of contact in recent time scale.

The Arizona fescue-mountain muhly steppe (prairie of cespitose grasses) was clearly missing from the rangeland cover types published by the Society for Range Management (Shiflet, 1994). Somehow nobody wrote it up. Interior Ponderosa Pine (SAF 237) and Aspen (SAF 217) were included in the Society of American Foresters forest cover types (Eyre, 1980) with, it was remarked again, short shrift to understories. For consistency in organization the quaking aspen and ponderosa pine and Engelmann spruce forms were included in the chapters, Quaking Aspen and Southern and Central Rocky Mountain Forests, respectively.

These three range plant communities were united by (had a shared affinity due to) dominance or co-dominance by combinations of Arizona fescue, Thurber's fescue, and/or montain muhly with or without a tree component. They were unique units of range vegetation that were distinct from each other yet united by dominant plant species. The three range communities were interpreted by the current author as a set of three (at minimum) distinctive range types that constituted a continuum at the western edge of mixed prairie in the Central Grasslands Region. Fescue-muhly prairie was viewed by this worker as "islands" or "outposts" of that had elements of both Palouse Prairie and Great Plains-Southwestern Tablelands grasslands and yet was a vegetational "no man's land", a unit of range vegetation unique unto itself.

343. Festuca-Muhlenbergia montane prairie, a subalpine park- A Festuca arizonica-dominated mima mound prairie with lot of glaucous or timberline bluegrass (Poa glauca subsp. rupicola), lesser cover of Letterman's needlegrass (Stipa lettermanii) and a few relict plants of mountain muhly, plus abundance of showy pussytoes Antennaria pulcherrimia subsp. anaphaloides (which was locally the associate to dominant species). Dense stand of showy pussytoes was shown in foreground of second slide where this local forb population was surrounded by Arizona fescue with some Letterman's needlegrass and timberline or gl,aucous bluegrass. Other forb species included golden whitlowort or golden draba (Draba aurea) and an Parry's milkvetch (Astragalus s parryi).

All the grass species on this range except for timberline bluegrass were in early stages of phenological development (mostly early to mid-growth stages; prior to elongation of shoots) so that the author could not make positive identifications except for timberline bluegrass and Arizona fescue, the latter of which was identified by last year's shoots that had retained central rachises of panicles. Thurber's fescue was distinguished (barely) from Arizona fescue by thicker-appearing tufts and generally wider leaves. Previously the author had closely observed Arizona fescue so as to be able to recognize it and eliminate fescue plants that were obviously different. Otherwise, with no field experience in regard to these grass species, all of which were in pre-boot development stages, identification by this author was a matter of guesswork.

This range likely had been overgrazed in the past (current degree ofuse was Light to Moderate), but there were a number of robust individual plants of Arizona fescue and, much less, Thurber's frescue to tht there was substantial relictual seed source, at least of Arizona fescue. There was also some remaining plants of Letterman's needlegrass as sources of soil seed bank.

This prairie or park adjoined a relict Festuca bunchgrass prairie and a quaking aspen parkland (that was invading the pristine prairie). All three range plant communities were contiguous. More precisely the mima-mound, degraded prairie was across and just down a state highway from the other two communities. Same difference. And, of course, there was another aspen grove adjoining the the degraded mima-mound grassland. Range types represented by these three samples were also contiguous with the woodland and open ponderosa pine forest community that had the same Festuca-Muuhlebergia herbaceous layer present as the understory of that forest range type.

PARK: a cultural-historical note on local idiom. Throughout the Southern Rockies, especially in Colorado, the work "park" is applied variously. Generally "park" means, implies, or connotes an area largely devoid of trees and covered almost exclusively with herbaceous vegetation, especially grasses and/or grasslike plants. Hence, "park" in local usage may be applied to grassland, meadows (wet or dry), glades within forests, and even alpine meadows. Size of "park" is irrelevant except as applied to formal (official) usage as, for instance, on maps for specific "parks" The most obvious of the more official usage is in the proper nouns of North Park, Middle Park, and South Park which, along with the San Luis Valley, are large Intermountain Parks that are basins within mountain ranges of the Southern Rocky Mountains (Shaw, 2009, p. 12). Crowley (1975) described these "basins in the sky": "A mountain park is a high-altitude, relatively small, saucer-shaped basin consisting of an almost treelsess plain nearly surrounded by forested mountains and often separated from them by an intervening belt of foothills". In this usage "park" applies to specific areas based on geological formations, especially landforms, but also vegetation. There is a Park County, Colorado named after South Park.

In less formal applications (ie. not as proper nouns) and applied at smaller spatial scale, "park" in historic usage as has been applied by speakers and writers--local folk and "foreigners"--to any opening dominated by herbaceous plants situated among woody plant communities. For instance, Costello (1944) used the term "park" as one of the forage types of Colorado and Wyoming in contrast to forest or shrubland types: the "park type" versus "wet meadow type", "ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir type", "sagebrush type", "aspen type". Schuster (1964) used "grassland parks" as a designation of "vegetation type" applied to grass-dominated range vegetation on treeless areas, as distinct from timbered (forested) range and abandoned fields.

The current author "sprinkled in" the term "park" along with montane grassland or mountain prairie as well as mountain meadows (dry or wet) to be consistent with one of the traditional designations of this range vegetation. This was done to facilitate communication with readers, some of whom may use this historical label.

FRES 36 (Mountain Grasslands Ecosystem). K-46 (Fescue-Mountain Muhly Prairie). No SRM, but it was a southern and eastern rough equivalent of SRM 613 except it would be Arizaona and Thurber's fescue instead of rough fescue (Festuca scabrella) . In Brown et al. (1998, p. 40) this would be a Fescue-Muhly Series, say 142.42 (if such existed) of Rocky Mountain Montane Grassland (142.4). Mountain Outwash range site. Arizona Fescue ecological series (19) and Thurber Fescue ecological series (20), in part (Johnson et al., 2001). Southern Rockies-Grassland Parks Ecoregion 22j (Chapman et al., 2006).

344. Hope for the future- Vigorous individual plants of Arizona fescue on a montane (subalpine) grassland or "park" that had large areas of degraded range as well as patches of rank-growing speciemens like these. This range had apparently received pronounced spot-grazing in the past (currently it was not being grazing by livestock) with resultant local areas devoid of any grass and basically patches of showy pussytoes while other local areas (like this one) were populated by large and ungrazed plants. Such large, rank-growing plants that received no grazing were examples of wolf plants, which in this context refers to individual plants generally considered palatable but that have not been grazed (Jacoby, 1989). Spot grazing was defined in Jacoby (1989) as "repeated grazing of small areas while adjacent areas are lightly grazed or unused". Spot grazing is often caused by imporper distribution of range animals, but this did not appear to be the case in this instance. Cause of spotgrazing remained un known to the author. The ungrazed plants Arizona fescue and Letterman's needlegrass had obviously not been grazed during the previous growing season as they had sexual shoots that had shed caryopses.

Johnson et al. (2001) cited the summary of Dayton et al. (1937) and explained that when ranges were so degraded that Arizona fescue plants were sparse as to be about nine to twelve fet apart the stands of this valuable forage species could be lost. Such depleted ranges might require a millenium for recovery and at least several decades under the most favorable of conditions (Johnson et al., 2001). In other words, this rank-growing bunchgrass is extremely fragile, and it is far and away the superior plant species for this range type. The large and closely spaced Arizona fescue plants shown in this photograph had produced grain the preceding summer so there was dome hope for recovery--albeit undoubtedly slow--in the future of this montane grassland range.

This local stand of vigorous, robust Arizona fescue plants was on the edge of one of several mima mounds on this montane bunchgrass prairie. Bare ground on this mima mound showed the gravel and small stones of the sedimentary soil on this Mountain Outwash range site.

FRES 36 (Mountain Grasslands Ecosystem). K-46 (Fescue-Mountain Muhly Prairie). No SRM, but it was a southern and eastern rough equivalent of SRM 613 except it would be Arizaona and Thurber's fescue instead of rough fescue (Festuca scabrella) . In Brown et al. (1998, p. 40) this would be a Fescue-Muhly Series, say 142.42 (if such existed) of Rocky Mountain Montane Grassland (142.4). Arizona Fescue ecological series (19) and Thurber Fescue ecological series (20), in part (Johnson et al., 2001). Southern Rockies-Grassland Parks Ecoregion 22j (Chapman et al., 2006).

345. A spot for forbs- Plants of golden whitlowort or golden draba and Parry's milkvetch accompanied showy pussytoes, the overall dominant forb, on a local area of montane grassland (subalpine park) range that had deteriorated under spot grazing. There were also some plants of timberline or glaucous bluegrass, but Arizona fescue, the climax dominant and the superior forage species, was nowhere to be seen. On this range type/range site dominance by these forbs was symptomatic of a lower seral stage. "Wild flowers" ain't purty in this instance. These forbs were weeds on this range site and signs of a severely depleted range, in this local spot that is.

The immediately preceding photograph was of climax range vegetation at another spot that was less tha 15 steps from the immediate location shown in this photograph. So there was hope for this abused range.

346. Pristine steppe, but on its way to becoming a quaking aspen grove- The margins of the mountain park of bunchgrass prairie shown above that was dominated by Arizona fescue with associates of mountain muhly, Thurber's fescue, Letterman's needlegrass, and glaucous bluegrass adjoining a quaking aspen grove. Groves of aspen completely surrounded this "park", the term applied by local folk and written in much of the historic literature in reference to grasslands situated among forests and scrublands within the Southern Rocky Mountains. The range vegetation shown in these two photographs and the immediately succeeding photograph was on the opposite sides of a state highway immediately adjacent to the right-of-way. The range plant community of the Arizona fescue-dominated montane grassland shown in these and the next slide was a relict parcel of the climax vegetation of this grassland range type and of the original (pre-white man) range prior to deterioration and physical separation by a road.

Quaking aspen seedlings of several age classes had invaded and were continuing to invade this relict tract of Arizona fescue-mountain muhly grassland. Given the pervasive presence of European man there was no doubt but what this subalpine bunchgrass prairie had been grazed by livestock (probably of several species) as well as such native herbvores, both existing as well as extinct species. Similarily, it was highly probable, if not a given, that fires swept across this vegetational complex of grassland, aspen woodland, and, at higher elevtions, ponderosa pine forests and savannas so as to maintain a mosaic of these range plant communities. This "patchwork" of range vegetation can still be observed from isolated relicts of climax vegetation in addition to degraded and otherwise modified plant communities across the landscape. In absence of recurrent fire and/or grazing of the palatable quaking aspen by range animals this remnant of climax bunchgrass prairie will soon become an aspen grove until fire--natural or otherwise--or human intervention restores the Arizona fescue-dominated steppe or, at least, a bunchgrass-aspen savanna.

Under natural conditions (ie. without influence of non-native humans) there was a vegetational dynamic between aspen woodland and fescue-mountin muhly grasslands resulting in a mosaic along with savannahs of these two range types. This vegetational ebb-and-flow of these range plant communities was shown in the irrefutable evidence of these photographs. This spatial-temporal relationship between quaking aspen and climax bunchgrasses in the Southern Rockies is similar to that between the aspen parklands and rough fescue grasslands far to the northwest in the Northern Rocky Mountains.

Some shoots of the relatively short-lived quaking aspen had died, but these had been replaced by both asexual and sexual reproduction.

347. Virgin stand- Cespitose (tufts of bunchgrass) cover of a climax montane grassland of Arizona fescue with some scattered individuals of mountain muhly, Letterman's needlegrass, and Thurber's fescue. at the outer edge of a grove of quaking aspen. This was obviously a relict tract of a subalpine grassland that formed on sedimentary materials washed down from higher elevations. All grasses were at mid-stages of development so that identification had to be based on vegetative features. For Festuca plants without remains of last year's sexual shoots, which was included most plants, distinction between Thurber's and Arizona fescue was difficult, but the latter clearly predominated. Letterman's needlegrass was more common closer to the aspen grove (and more abundant yet beneath cover of aspen).

This tufted turf was just across a state highway from the degraded, spot-grazed range presented above. The relict of pristine steppe shown here was approximately 30 yards from the local stand of robust Arizona fescue on a mima mound discussed above. The ibunchgrass prairie and adjoining grove of quaking aspen shown in this and the two preceding photographs had undoubtedly been grazed by livestock in the distant past. There was, however, no current grazing by domestic animals nor was there any evidence of livestock use in the last few years. For instance, the author could not find any cattle dung and, as was explained in the preceding caption, the numerous aspen seedlings of different age classes would not have as abundant had livestock grazed this range during recent seasons.

Physiogonomy and botanical composition of this range plant community was that of the climax Arizona fescue-dominated grassland.

Note on organization: Coverage of the quaking aspen-fescue-mountain muhly park adjoining this montane or subalpine grassland was in the Aspen Types chapter under Woodlands and Forests in Range Types. There were two ranges at higher elevation that were adjacent to this montane (subalpine) grassland and aspen grove which were of different range cover types. One of these was the ponderosa pine-fescue-mountain muhly range type and the second was Engelmann spruce-fescue-mountain muhly cover type. Examples of these two range types were included in the Southern and Central Rocky Mountain Forests chapter under Woodlands and Forests.

This format was employed to be consistent with treatment of vegetation as to range types within biomes (ie. grassland vs. forests). Confusion was unavoidable regardless of what format was used, but this merely reflected the continuity of range plant communities in which Arizona fescue and/or Thurber's fescue were dominant, climax, herbaceous, range plants. In this area of South Park and adjoining mountain ranges like the Mosquito and Front Ranges it was grass species not tree of shrub species that were zonal dominants.

348. Glaucous or timberline bluegrass (Poa glauca subsp. rupicola) on a degraded Arizona fescue-mountain muhly prairie range. Plants of glaucus bluegrass seen on the depleted mima mound-dotted mountain grassland range that was shown and described above. The first photograph was of a local locsl population of this species while the second photograph presented a typical whole plant.

On this range type/range site it seemed likely that glaucous bluegrass was indicative of heavy grazing likely in conjuction with a relatively dry habitat. (See two paragraphs below.)

There has been quite a bit of difference in agrostological opinion or interpretation with regard to P. glaucous. More details in this regard were presented in the succeeding caption. Hitchcock and Chase (1951, p. 128-129) recognized this species as haaving a wide distribution from the Arctic south to Colorado. Following this interpretation glaucous bluegrass is an important species on regional, if not global, scale. Hitchcock and Chase (1951, p. 130) also recognized P. rupicola, timberline bluegrass, but they did not include this species in Colorado. More recent treatments recognized these two species as subspecies of P. glauca (= Poa glauca subsp. rupicola and P. glauca subsp. glauca).

The latter is the more northern subspecies. P. glauca subsp. glauca is the widespread subspecies known as glaucous bluegrass (in contrast to timberline bluegrass). In this distinction that is P. glauca subsp. glauca that is the extremely important species. So much so that there were two releases of this subspecies by Plant Materials Centers in Alaska. P. glauca subsp. glauca was regarded as a pioneer species especially adapted to dry slopes. This was similar habitat for thePoa glauca subsp. rupicola shown here.

Park County, Colorado. Mid-June, full-bloom stage.

349. Blowing (and blurred) in a mountain breeze- Panicles of glaucus bluegrass on plants introduced in the immediately preceding photographs. A strong wind prevented quality pictures by an only slightly slower traveling photographer who had no time to wait for mountain breezes to lay. The fairly dense, purple-colored panicle with erect branches is a key distinguishing feature of this Poa. Many Poa species closely resemble each other as well as exhibiting considerable phenotypic variation within a single species. As has been the case for many Poa species there has been considerable confusing treatment in the literature with regard to nomenclature and arrangement of this bluegrass. For example, previously this subspecies was regarded as P. rupicola. Also, P. glauca was previously included with P. interior by Coulter and Nelson (1909, p. 70). Shaw (2008, p. 463) followed Barker et al. (2007) and distinguished between these two species on basis of longer ligules and wider spikelets in P. glauca. Coulter and Nelson (1909, p. 71) placed P. rupicola in with P. pattersonii. Based on their descripition (eg. purple lemmas) the plants shown here were likely covered as P. pattersonii, a taxon that Shaw (2008, p. 447) treated as P. abbreviata subsp. pattersonii, a plant of moist alpine habitats.

What a mess! Anyway by this synopsis interpretation P. glauca is not a major bluegrass species in this region though it was abundant on this depleted range. (See again discussion of P. glauca in the preceding caption.)

Park County, Colorado. Mid-June, full-bloom stage.

350. Low forb on degraded mountain prairie- Golden whitlowort (Draba aurea) on a deteriorated (and recovering) Arizona fescue-mountain muhly mountain grassland. This low-growing crucifer was common buy widely spaced on this previously abused range of bunchgrass mountain prairie.

Park County, Colorado. Mid-June, full-blllom stage.

356. Showy paws on a prairie- Showy pussytoes (Antennaria pulcherrima subsp. anaphaloides) growing on the Arizona fescue-dominated mima mound prairie that introduced this section. This weedy forb was a local associate to dominant on an overgrazed though recovering mountain grassland range. This little composite with its numerous heads in clusters does not make many of the wild flower books, but it had a major presence on this degraded range.

Antennaria is in the Compositae tribe, Inuleae.

Park County, Colorado. Mid-June, full-blllom stage.

357. Big natural park in Southern Rockies- Landscape-scale panarama of a mountain grassland of Arizona fescue (Festuca arizonica) and mountain muhly (Muhlenbergia montana) within a surrounding forest of ponderosa or western yellow pine in the Southern Rocky Mountains. This mountain grassland occupied a nearly treeless valley having an area of approximately five square miles that was situated within mountain slopes covered with ponderosa pine forests, sometimes with Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) as the associate tree. In the bottom of this valley range plant communities were primarily montane marshes usually called wet subalpine mountain meadows. Between the wet meadows and this Arizona fescue-Mountain muhly steppe (bunchgrass prairie) there were vegetational zones of moist to dry meadow (dry subalpine mountain meadow). The range vegetation of meadows varied considerably, but consisted mostly of caric sedges, spikerushes, rushes, and cool-season grasses (especially Poa species). The term applied collectively to these herbaceous plant communities is park.

Park is the term or designation applied to such areas of herbaceous vegetation that exist as "grassy openings" or glades within a larger vegetation or plant community that is more-or-less forest or woodland. Parks can be extremely large so as to encompass thousands of acres as for example North, Middle, and South Parks in the Colorado Rockies or quite small as, say, less than ten acres (maybe less than one acre). Other parks can be of intermediate size that are still relatively large such as the one shown here. Park apparently originated as part of the local idiom among rural folk tracing pack to mountain men and miners. The word become widely accepted as a term applied with situationally dependent meanings and connotations including as a designation for natural vegetation. Park even has cultural usage such as to distinguish political units in, for instance, Park County, Colorado where range vegetation shown in this and several succeeding photographs had developed.

The range vegetation featured here was mountain steppe dominated by Arizona fesuce (with some Idaho fescue [Festuca idahoensis]) and mountain muhly (with some slimstem muhly [Muhlembergia filiculmis]). In some restricted locations there was a savanna to woodland of ponderosa pine as a tree layer to this montane grassland. (See next slide). Grasses were limited to these species as dominants and associates with scattered plants of various needlegrasses several of which either integrade or are very similar. The latter included Letterman's needlegrass (Stipa lettermannii) which, according to various authorities, has frequently included--wholly or in part--Nelson's needlegrass (S. nelsonii), pine needlegrass (S. pinetorum), and/or western neddlegrass (S. occidentalis). Search as he might the author did not find any cheatgrass (or any other species of annual grass) nor bluegrass species in this grassland of cespitose grasses. .

San Isabel National Forest, Park County, Colorado. Mid-June (late vernal aspect). Mosaic of: FRES No. 21 (Ponderosa Pine Forest and Woodland Ecosystem), K-15 (Eastern Ponderosa Forest), SAF 237 (Interior Ponderosa Pine) and FRES No. 36 (Mountain Grasslands Ecosystem), K-46 (Fescue-Mountain Muhly Prairie), no SRM but would be a southern variant of SRM 110 (Ponderosa Pine-Grassland). Pinus ponderosa Association 122.621 in Yellow Pine Series 122.62, Rocky Mountain Montane Conifer Forest 122.6 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 37). Southern Rockies- Crystalline Mid-Elevation Forests Ecoregion, 21c (Chapman et al., 2006).

358. Pine in big natural park- Local savannah or woodland of ponderosa pine on part of an Arizona fescue-mountain muhly steppe in a large park in the Southern Rocky Mountains. This slide showed a portion of the Arizona fescue-mountain muhly montane grassland (a bunchgrass park) introduced in the preceding photograph from a slightly different location to give an example of local grove-like stands of ponderosa pine on what was otherwise a mountain grassland made up of only a few cespitose grass species. Other grasses in this range plant community included Idaho fescue, slimstem muhly, and Letterman's needlegrass in about that order of abundance (which was not abundant at all).

In this general location there was a continuum of natural vegetation ranging from fescue-muhly steppe (grassland of cespitose or tufted species of two Gramineae genera), savanna as a fescue-muhly community with widely scattered ponderosa pine, woodland of ponderosa pines that did not contact each other over a prominent fescue-muhly layer, and finally to ponderosa pine forests with tree densities that permitted only limited development of an herbaceous understorey. This different local plant communities occurred as a mosaic. This pattern of range vegetation was shown in the next photograph below.

359. A studded landscape- A landscape-scale view showing a mosaic of montane grassland and forest in the Southern Rocky Mountains at an elevation of roughly 9000 feet. This range vegetation was at slightly higher elevation than the larger park described in the two immediately preceding photographs. This grassland was also a mountain steppe (bunchgrass prairie), but forests while were primarily ponderosa pine also included Engelmann spruce as the associate to local dominant. In the perspective of Landscape Ecology these forests were patches in a matrix of montane prairie made up of cespitose (tufted or clumped) grasses the major species of which were Arizona fescue and mountain muhly. In addition to these dominants associate grass species included Idaho fescue, slimstem muhly, Nelson's needlegrass, and glaucus bluegrass (Poa glauca). There few forbs present were mostly composites and of no apparent consequence at this season (in this plant society).

At larger (area-wide or mountain range) scale montane grasslands were patches within a forest matrix. In other words, there were smaller-size vegetational units that could be seen as patches immersed within larger-size vegetational areas that could be viewed as patches within larger-yet units of vegetation which could be regarded as the general vegetation that qualified as the all-encompassing matrix. Contrary to early anticipation of the newer discipline of Landscape Ecology, landscape theory and perspective did not eliminate the subjectivity of the earlier paradigm of Ecosystem Ecology that often posed problems in delinating boundaries of ecosystems. All ecological units whether natural plant-animal communities (biomes, associations, etc.), ecosystems, landscapes, populations, species, or even individuals of clonal organisms pose the same problem as to "where to draw the line".

But to return to this range vegetation: the local tree-dominated communities were mostly stands consisting of about five or six up to twenty (at the most) ponderosa pine and some Engelmann spruce with most conifers being of mature age and size with all together forming in tiny to small forest clumps within an otherwise uninterupted mountain steppe. Engelmann spruce tended to be larger than the ponderosa pine. For comparison, the two largest trees in right-center midground were Engelmann spruce which, incidentially, had produced an abundant cone crop.

The larger, taller, and more-rank tufts of grass were Arizona fescue, the local dominant. Grass clumps of shorter height were mostly montain muhly, the local associate species, with some Idaho fescue and slimstem muhly. These grasses are strictly cespitose species meaning that they are tufted with all their shoots being tillers (no horizontal shoots such as rhizomes). Thus this grassland physiogonomy is that of a steppe or bunchgrass prairie.

San Isabel National Forest, Park County, Colorado. Mid-June (late vernal aspect; all grasses in preboot phenological stage). Grassland vegetation was FRES No. 36 (Mountain Grasslands Ecosystem), K-46 (Fescue-Mountain Muhly Prairie), no SRM but would be a southern variant of SRM 110 (Ponderosa Pine-Grassland). Forest community (patches or clumps thereof) was FRES No. 21 (Ponderosa Pine Forest and Woodland Ecosystem), K-15 (Eastern Ponderosa Forest), SAF 237 (Interior Ponderosa Pine), Pinus ponderosa Association 122.621 in Yellow Pine Series 122.62, Rocky Mountain Montane Conifer Forest 122.6 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 37). Southern Rockies- Crystalline Mid-Elevation Forests Ecoregion, 21c (Chapman et al., 2006).

360. High elevation grassland with some tree neighbors- A montane grassland of cespitose grasses that formed a high-elevation (about 9000 feet) steppe (bunchgrass prairie) dominated by Arizona fescue and with mountain muhly as associate (in a few local habitats these were co-dominant species). In certain locations Arizona fescue grew in consociations of relatively extensive coverage. The second of these two photographs presented an example of a consociation or single-species stand. Other--though always minor--grasses included Idaho fescue, slimstem muhly, Letterman's needlegrass, and even glaucus bluegrass. Cheatgrass had not invaded this grassland. There were no forbs of apparent importance at this season (in this vernal plant society).

Two conifer species grew in aggregations that formed clumps of five or six up to roughly twenty adult (though relatively modest-sized) trees. The dominant of these was western yellow or ponderosa pine (all trees in the first slide). Engelmann spruce was the associate conifer based on relative cover and density. The largest trees (height and trunk diameter), however, were Engelmann spruce (eg. the two isolated trees at right-of-center skyline in the second slide). Although this elevational zone was below timber (tree) line, the Engelmann spruce showed some general features caused by wind-pruning. An example of this was the numerous shrublike trees and/or shoots of Engelmann spruce that had formed at the base of the two adult trees just mentioned.

Any close spatial association among woody plants and herbaceous ones raises questions regarding competition and survival in the presence of each other. Obviously bunchgrasses and ponderosa pine have co-existed for millennia, but there could still be other than mutually beneficial symbiosis. Larson and Lachubert (1969) reported that roots of Arizona fescue and mountain muhly grew faster than roots of ponderosa pine suggesting potential competition between ponderosa and its two major understorey herbaceous species. In fact, Rietveld (1975) found that competition from these two grasses could suppress or even kill seedlings of ponderosa pine. Occurrence/presence of trees either in small groups (like "mini- forests"), as here, or as woodlands or savanna, as shown above, suggested that for some reason(s) co-existence of these species of conifers and bunchgrasses was limited. Fire history of this range vegetation was unknown to the author.

Park County, Colorado. Mid-June (late vernal aspect; all grasses in preboot phenological stage). Grassland vegetation was FRES No. 36 (Mountain Grasslands Ecosystem), K-46 (Fescue-Mountain Muhly Prairie), no SRM but would be a southern variant of SRM 110 (Ponderosa Pine-Grassland). Forest community (patches or clumps thereof) was FRES No. 21 (Ponderosa Pine Forest and Woodland Ecosystem), K-15 (Eastern Ponderosa Forest), SAF 237 (Interior Ponderosa Pine), Pinus ponderosa Association 122.621 in Yellow Pine Series 122.62, Rocky Mountain Montane Conifer Forest 122.6 of Brown et al. (1998, p. 37). Southern Rockies- Crystalline Mid-Elevation Forests Ecoregion, 21c (Chapman et al., 2006).

361. Mountain steppe- Physiogonomy, structure, and species composition of montane bunchgrass prairie with Arizona fescue and mountain muhly as dominant and associate, respectively, or co-dominants locally. There were some plants of Idaho fescue, slimstem muhly, Nelson's needlegrass, and even glaucus bluegrass although all of these were present only as scattered to widely scattered individuals. An unusually dense--though still local--group of glaucus bluegrass plants was in the center foreground of the second slide. These plants were in early stages of grain production. Gaucus bluegrass was the only grass even approaching flowering. Arizona fescue is a later-maturing, cool-season species while mountain muhly is a warm-season, C4 grass (Shaw, 2008, ps. 157, 399). Cheatgrass was not present nor were there forbs of obvious ecological importance at this season. The few forbs present were composites.

The second photograph presented greater detail of the interrupted sward of this mountain bunchgrass prairie.

Range vegetation seen in these two slides was on the same grassland as shown in the three immediately preceding slides.

San Isabel National Forest, Park County, Colorado. Mid-June (late vernal aspect; all grasses in preboot phenological stage). FRES No. 36 (Mountain Grasslands Ecosystem), K-46 (Fescue-Mountain Muhly Prairie), no SRM but would be a southern variant of SRM 110 (Ponderosa Pine-Grassland). Southern Rockies- Crystalline Mid-Elevation Forests Ecoregion, 21c (Chapman et al., 2006).

Dune or Sand Form of Quasi-Mixed Prairie

Note on organization and location- Grasslands dominated by Indian ricegrss as: 1) "pure stands" (consociation) of this species and 2) Indian ricegrass--muhlies (Muhlenbergia spp.)--blue grama--needle-and-thread communities developed in the San Luis Valley of southern Colorado on more nearly level land and rolling sand dunes, respectively. The San Luis Valley is a high mountain desert so that these grassland range types are most precisely defined as semidesert grassland. As such these grassland range types were included in the chapter, Semidesert Grasslands. The proximate location of these bunchgrass prairies in high desert to mixed prairie on the Southern High Plains and Colorado Piedmont as well as some species common to both climates plus the intermediate height of the dominant semidesert grasses indicated the affinity of the semidesert and plains-piedmont grassland types. Semidesert grasslands in the San Luis Valley having formed on sand dunes or deeper sandy soils are most likely postclimax. The greater and more effective water content of sandy soils created a more mesic habitat than that which was typical at regional or zonal scale. Arguably these Indian ricegrass-muhly grasslands could be viewed as another (and unusual) form of mixed prairie that developed on dunes. Presence and appreciable cover of blue grama (on lower dunes with shallower, less sandy soils) and needle-and-thread (on deep sand dunes) as common associates on grasslands of the more dunelike range sites provided other supporting evidence for this expanded interpretation of mixed prairie.

This author did not take that approach, but rather--and as already indicated--interpreted these unique grassland range types as semidesert grassland so that they were treated in the chapter of that name. Also included in the chapter, Semidesert Grasslands, was the ecotone or transitional range type that was a savanna between Indian ricegrass-muhly-blue grama grassland and black greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) scrub. This black greasewood-dominated desert was included in the shrubland chapter, Miscellaneous Scrub Types.

Dual purpose: The following short section served two objectives First, it showed a limited assortment of forms of mixed prairie ranging from a subtype or variant comprised of a) tall-, mid-, and shortgrass species through a type variant made up of b) mid- and shortgrass species to a variant composed only of c) almost exclusively shortgrasses. Second, it presented representative ranges of these types (subtypes) as they appeared in early summer on the Southern High Plains under Extraordinary Drought. Extraordinary Drought is the highest (worst) category of Drought Severity Classification in the national Drought Monitor program, which corresponds to the Palmer Drought Severity Index score of -5.0. These examples were in various Ecosystem Level IV Ecorgeions, but all of them were in the High Plains or Southern Great Plains section of the Great Plains physiographic province. Photographs were taken in late June, 2008 which was into the eighth year of prolongued drought culminating in the harshest or most stressful classification category of drought.

362. Mixed prairie with maximum diversity- Classic mixed prairie in Southern High Plains on a level local plain with soil ranging from sandy to deep sand. This range vegetation was a textbook example of mixed prairie having major components from all three grass height groups including: tallgrass species of sand bluestem, little bluestem, and Indiangrass; midgrass species of sideoats grama, silver bluestem, plains lovergrass, red threeawn, and sand dropseed; and shortgrass species that were limited to buffalograss and blue grama. There were widely scattered plants of cheatgrass or downy brome. This naturalized Eurasian annual was the only cool-season grass this photographer found. (Soil was too sandy, well-drained, to support western wheatgrass.) Forbs were almost nonexistent except for some of the standard tumbleweed, Russian thistle, and a few widely scattered plants of wild alfalfa or slimleaf scurfpea and broom snakeweed. Shrub species included sand sagebrush, soapweed yucca, and plains pricklypear. This was an isolated example of bluestem-grama prairie that is far more typical to the east in areas of greater precipitation. The deep sand of this rangeland permitted development of a climax range plant community that occurs only locally in this region where isolated communities generally come into contact with the more widespread and xeric blue grama-buffalo shortgrass country (description of SRM 604 in Shiflet, 1994, p. 73). In this area of High Plains and on sandy soils sand bluestem replaces big bluestem, this latter of which is the ecologically equivalent species in the typically higher precipitation belts in the greater zone of this rangeland cover type (description for SRM 709 in Shiflet, 1994, ps. 89-90).

Range condition was obviously--even, glaringly--in the Excellent class.All plants were in drought-induced dormancy in this eighth straight year of drought which was classified in the category of Extraordinary Drought. This particlar range had been destocked, apparently due to high cattle losses from a blizzard the previous winter. There was abundant dead (and only slightly weathered) herbage for cattle feed on this range. This can be compared to a range that was almost exclusively buffaograss which was being grazed just about five or six miles right down the road from this destocked pasture. Some of the standing brass biomass on this range was perhaps two or more years old. Only time would tell how many of the plants seen here had survived or could live through another growing season of drought. The species composition as estimated from a general mental calculation of biomass, cover, density, and relative abundance of herbage certainly was tht of climax mised prairie in, as stated above, in Excellent condition class.

A beautiful mixed prairie range even in Extraordinary Drought. Although this range vegetation would have been prettier if green in a wet year its appearance at its worst displayed the species make-up, botanical diversity, and herbage yield of which High Plains grassland is capable when proprly managed. For impressionable students that phenomenon was even more extraordinary than the devestation wrought by the worst of drought conditions.

Baca County, Colorado. Late June; early summer with plants in drought-dormancy. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-62 (Bluestem-Grama Prairie). SRM 604 (Bluestem-Grama Prairie) and/or SRM 709 (Bluestem-Grama). Brown et al. (1998, p. 40) did not provide a series for this climax vegetation under Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1. High Plains- Flat to Rolling Plains Ecoregion, 25d (Chapman et al.l, 2006).

363. Two more examples of maximum diversity mixed prairie- Two other pastures of mixed prairie on the Southern High Plains in which tallgrass, midgrass, and shortgrass species were all major components. Both pastures had plants of the following grass species: sand bluestem,. little bluestem, silver bluestem, sideoats grama, red threeawn, sand dropseed, plains lovergrassblue grama, and buffalograss. Wild alfalfa or slimleaf scurfpea was the main forb. Broom snakeweed was an infrequent subshrub. Shrub species included plains prickly, walkingstick cholla and soapweed yucca. On these two ranges prairie sagewort or fringed sagebrush (Artemisia frigida) replaced sand sagebrush as a representative of that genus.

Both of these pastures were approximately 20-25 miles west of the range presented in the immediately preceding photographs. All ranges were photographed during the same morning. This area had been in eight years of prlonged drought culminating in a rating of Extraordinary Drought.The obviously greater quantity of green plant tissue on the second of these two ranges was due to a fortituous shower a few weeks prior to photograph. This was much greater sod coverage (sod-forming grasses like buffalograss) on this "tight land" (higher clay content) as opposed to greater patchiness of bare ground on the deep sand to sandy soil of the previous range.

Las Animas County, Colorado. Late June; early summer with plants in drought-dormancy. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-62 (Bluestem-Grama Prairie). SRM 604 (Bluestem-Grama Prairie). Brown et al. (1998, p. 40) did not provide a series for this climax vegetation under Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1. Southwestern Tablelands- Piedmont Plains & Tablelands Ecoregion, 26e (Chapman et al.l, 2006).

364. More typical--though still diverse--mixed prairie- Another range of mixed prairie in the Southern High Plains, but of another rangeland cover type from those shown previously in this drought-stressing section. Range vegetation in this example included some local depressions with enough finner (lighter)-textured soils to support western wheatgrass. This added a major coll-season native perennial grass to the overall plant community of this mixed prairie range. However, the tallgrass component (sand and little bluestems) was absent from this range vegetation. There was also considerably more ground cover by the sod-forming buffalograss. Other important grasses included silver bluestem, sideoats grama, blue grama, and sand dropseed. In contrast to the other examples (and other range types) presented in this "dual purpose" section this climax range plant community was defined by both warm- and cool-season dominants (ie. grama grasses along with buffalograss and western wheatgrass, respectively). There was also some cheatgrass or downy brome, but this was limited on this range that was in Good range condition class. It was also likely that the absence of adequate soil moisture due to conditions of Extraordinary Drought in full force prevented germination of grains.

Wild alfalfa or slimleaf scurpea was also more common (more cover and more widespread in occurrence). Shrubs included plains pricklypear, walkingstick cholla, and soapweed yucca. Prairie sagewort or fringed sagebrush was locally common while plants of broom snakeweed were more sparse, but being larger and bushier plants each one of these individuals comprised more cover than a plant of Artemisia frigida. These two species have usually been described as subshrubs that could be regarded as either shrubs or forbs.

Las Animas, County, Colorado. Late June; early summer with plants in drought-dormancy. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-61 (Wheatgrass-Grama-Buffalograss). SRM 704 (Blue Grama-Western Wheatgrass). Mixed "Short-Grass" Series, 142.13 of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Southwestern Tablelands- Piedmont Plains & Tablelands Ecoregion, 26e (Chapman et al., 2006).

365. Drought-stricken but still Excellent- In its eighth straight year of drought this mixed prairie range still showed the physiogonomy, species composition, foliar cover, plant density and so forth of climax or potential natural vegetatio. At time of these photographs this area was experiencing Exceptional Drought (Category D4; Palmer Drought Index of -5.0), the highest (worst) rating on the Drought Severity Classification. These two photographs and the following two were different views of the same pasture. These four "photo=quadrants" showed the diversity in range plant species and plant growth forms that frequently varied at local scale. Patchiness of blue grama and buffalograss, the two main shortgrasses, along with a few small plants of rubber rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus) was shown in the second of the two slides presented here. Predominant range plant species in the first of these photographs and in areas of taller herbage in the second photographs included western wheatgrass, silver bluestem, sideoats grama, galleta, red threeawn, and sand dropseed. Indian ricegrass was also present, but not as a major species. Cheatgrass or downy brome was almost nonexistent. This may have been partly due to inadequate soil moisture.

Broom shakeweed occurred as scattered individuals (ie. there were not groups or locally dominated spots of this species). Plains pricklypear, an ever-present species on ranges in this area, was also well-represented though at cover and density of climax vegetation (= Excellent range condition class, as this range plant community certainly was). Walkingstick cholla was also represented. Yucca glauca is also found on almost every range in this area, including the range featured here. Wild alfalfa or slimleaf scurfpea was the major forb. It was not common on the more lowland land form.

366. How to stock for drought- Two other "photo-plots" of the Excellent condition class western wheatgrass-gramagrass-buffalograss mixed prairie range introduced immediately above. Blue and sideoats grama, galleta, sand dropseed, red threeawn, and silver bluestem were also important species. Indian ricegrass was present, but more as an indicator plant (decreaser species). Forbs were very infrequent and were limited mostly to wild alfalfa or slimleaf scurfpea. Shrubs were uncommon, but woody and semi-woody species included broom snakeweed, rubber rabbitbrush, soapweed or pale yucca, plains pricklypear, and a few walkingstick cholla.

Students' attention was directed to the amount or quantity of standing crop or herbage remaining on this range that was currently being grazed by cows and calves. One of the main reasons why these photographs were included--in spite of ugly, dead foliage in early summer--was to present outstanding stewardship of the rangeland and superb husbandry of the beef cattle grazing it. The rancher managing this range knew how important it was to stock conservatively and have as light a degree of use as possible under a long-lasting drought with "no end in sight". Extraordinary Drought calls for extraordinary management of all resources including those of rangelands and other pastures. The owner ( manager) of this range and these cattle exemplified wise (proper) use of that under his charge.

367. Drought-smitten shortgrass plains- Southern High Plains grassland on which potential natural (climax) vegetation is domination by blue grama and buffalograss with substantial cover of sideoats grama, sand dropseed, and even some silver bluestem. This deteriorated range had been degraded to a nearly "solid" or "pure" stand of buffalograss, a grazing disturbance climax. Some cover of blue grama occurred in isolated patches. There were enough, even more widely isolated individual plants of sideoats grama (all of them had received heavy to extreme degree of use) to indicate that this midgrass was an associate species and, therefore, that the potential natural vegetation of this range was a mixed prairie with a clear predominance of shortgrass species.

This author had periodically observed this particular cattle range over a period of 40 years. It was consistently managed under (with) heavy grazing during that span of time. It remained a buffalograss disclimax with almost no change of any sort in species composition, physiogonomy, etc. Even under this heavy defoliation buffalograss had maintained the cover and density of shoots shown here. A few plants of wild alfalfa or slimleaf scurfpea comprised the forb component of this disturbance climax. There were some Yucca glauca plants (at the general size, cover, and density shown in the second photograph) so that this was the major shrub species. Plains pricklypear was the second most common shrub. There were also a few plants of the subshrub, broom snakeweed.

This range was destocked (and had been for some time) when these photographs were taken. A cattle range adjacent to (conterminous with) the range shown here was current stocked with beef cattle that were being maintained with survival feeding (shown and explained below). Question: what, if any, affect would presence of cattle on this range under these feed and plant-growing conditions (survival feeding, drought-induced dormancy) have on this range vegetation?

At time of these photographs the impacts of eight straight years of drought, culminating in Exceptional Drought (the condition shown in slides) was being manifest. Exceptional is the highest or worst category of Drought Severity Classification (Palmer Drought Index of -5.0) used by the US Drought Monitor program. These photographs bespoke of the grazing resistance and drought tolerance of buffalograss.

Cimarron County, Oklahoma. Late June; early summer with plants in drought-dormancy. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-58 (Grama-Buffalograss). SRM 715 (Grama-Buffalograss) and/or SRM 611 (Blue Grama-Buffalo Grass): both of these rangeland cover types (Shiflet, 1994, ps. 93-94, 79-80, respectively) included the High Plains region of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico in their descriptions. Grama "Short-Grass" Series, 142.12 of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). Deep Hardland range site. High Plains- Moderate Relief Plains Ecoregion, 25c (Woods et al., 2005).

368. Two range sites in High Plains drought- Two range sites in the Southern High Plains: Deep Hardland (foreground) and a Breaks (background) range site in the background under conditions of Exceptional Drought. This range and its vegetation was in the same cattle pasture described in the immediately slides and caption. The Deep Hardland site is a simple shortgrss (plains) prairie, the climax vegetation of which is blue grma-buffalograss as con-dominants with sideoats grama as associate species. Plants of sideoats grama had been grazed to down to the height as that of buffalograss. This range plant community had been been depleted to a single species stand (a population) of buffalograss. Such range vegetation would probably be most accurately described as a anthropogenic (man-induced) disclimax, a zootic disclimax in which cattle-grazing caused almost complete replacement of blue grama, the potential dominant, and sideoats grama, the natural associate, by buffalograss, the lesser co-dominant in the climax range vegetation.

The Breaks range site was dominated by skunkbush sumac (Rhus trilobata= R. aromatica) odorata). Otherwise, plant species present were the same as on the Deep Hardland site though with noticeable more sideoats grama. Cattle had grazed the range vegetation of this low Breaks site. Currently no cattle were on this range under the conditions of Exceptional Drought that were explained in the preceding caption.

Cimarron County, Oklahoma. Late June; early summer with plants in drought-dormancy. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-58 (Grama-Buffalograss). SRM 715 (Grama-Buffalograss) and/or SRM 611 (Blue Grama-Buffalo Grass): both of these rangeland cover types (Shiflet, 1994, ps. 93-94, 79-80, respectively) included the High Plains region of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico in their descriptions. Grama "Short-Grass" Series, 142.12 of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). High Plains- Moderate Relief Plains Ecoregion, 25c (Woods et al., 2005).

369. About as bad as it gets- Degraded shortgrass plains range that is essentially a single-species stand of buffalograss in a drought ranked as Exceptional, the worst or highest rating on the Drought Severity Classification scale (Palmer Drought Index of -5.0). Beef cattle were being fed emergency. This cattle range was adjacent to the destocked cattle range described in the preceding two photo-captions.

This herd was being kept alive by maintenance feeding, the practice of providing a balanced ration (complete diet) to livestock for prolonged periods as in extended drought. Cattle were essentially getting "next to nothing" from the remaining range herbage (it was too short for them to be able to eat much of it). Under this situation what, if any, impact would continued cattle stocking have on this range? Cattle were in effect being kept on this rangeland rather than paying out additional expense of moving (as by shipping or trailing) them to a dry lot. Or said another way, cattle were being dry lotted on the range where they were fed a maintenance diet rather than either paying to rent a lot or paying to have them fed (or, alternatively, to sell the herd). Given that range plants were in drought-dormancy and there was no feed left for cattle on the range (they could not remove anymore plant material by eating) did range-retention of cattle induce damage--and if so, how much--to the land and/or plant life? Other than damage by trampling or dunging, which could have been slight to considerable, the answer is that continuing to keep non-grazing cattle on the range most likely had limited adverse impact. Once buffalograss, about the only plant species present, started to green up "if and when it rained again", continuing to stock cattle could have a detrimental influence if grazing exceeded feeding (immediate grazing) capacity of the range (ie. stocking during plant recovery resulted in overuse of regrowing buffalograss).

Management of ranch resources (range, livestock, financial, internal structures, labor, equipment, etc.) under adverse situations is an art form based on rational financial, scientific, cultural, etc. factors. This is risk management in ranching. Drought is the great risk in in sermiarid regions such as the Great Plains.

Cimarron County, Oklahoma. Late June; early summer with plants in drought-dormancy. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-58 (Grama-Buffalograss). SRM 715 (Grama-Buffalograss) and/or SRM 611 (Blue Grama-Buffalo Grass): both of these rangeland cover types (Shiflet, 1994, ps. 93-94, 79-80, respectively) included the High Plains region of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico in their descriptions. Grama "Short-Grass" Series, 142.12 of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al., 1998, p. 40). High Plains- Moderate Relief Plains Ecoregion, 25c (Woods et al., 2005).

Shortgrass Prairie Sampler

The short section immediately above and the following short section on climax--not disclimax--shortgrass plains (shortgrass prairie) was included here to lead the student through to the contact between mixed and shortgrass prairies, a boundary (often a sharp one) that is especially widely dispersed in the Southern Great Plains. Unfortunately from a clarity perspective there are no such clear lines of demarction between the Southern and Central Plains as together they make up the High Plains with no obvious distinction. There are not physiographic distinctions of Southern or Central Great (High) Plains included in the ten sections of the Great Plains province most of which were based on underlying geologic formations (Fenneman, 1931, ps. 1-17). The Great Plains physiographic province includes the Colorado Piedmont which is situated between the Front Range and sections to the east like the Llano Estacado (Staked Plains). Students of the Great Plains should avail themselves of standard physiographic and geologic references. The slender pulication by Trimble (1980) is an ideal starting point. (Fenneman, 1931) is indispensible.

The recognition of Southern High Plains and Central High Plains as, for example, in Southern and Central Plains Experimental Ranges of the Agricultural Research Service is accepted and recognized by agricultural producers and plainsmen in general as well as range researchers, but this distinction does not extend to formal treatment as such within the physiographic provinces (Fenneman, 1931). Likewise, the ecoregions as shown in ecoregion maps of Kansas and Nebraska (Chapman et al., 2001), Wyoming (Chapman et al., 2003), Texas (Griffith et al., 2004), Colorado (Chapman et al., 2005), Oklahoma (Woods et al., 2005), and New Mexico (Omernik et al., 2006) did not correspond/coincide completely with sections of the Great Plains province.

Finally, there was overlap and duplication in naming, numbering, and describing rangeland cover types of the High Plains by the Society for Range Management (Shiflet, 1994). By way of example, blue grama-buffalograss plains grassland in southeastern Colorado and southwestern Kansas (and probably equally well for the Texas and Oklahoma Panhandles) could equally be idenfitied as SRM 611 (Shiflet, 1994, p. 79) or SRM 715 (Shiflet, 1994, p. 93). (Political boundaries like state lines were not drawn to correspond to natural regions.) In such situations both designations were supplied in discriptions provided below.

370. Shortgrass plains- This was an example of the shortgrass phase or shortgrass community form of mixed prairie. Blue grama and buffalograss were the two dominants of this climax grassland, but western wheatgrass, sideoats grama, and sand dropseed (the classic mid-grasses) were also common while silver bluestem formed distinct colonies (eg. the light tan area in left mid-ground) and individual plants of the cespitose little bluestem were also present. Dominant forb was wild alfalfa. This combination of sod-forming grasses and bunchgrasses is characteristic of mixed prairie, but the predominant sod-grasses were responsible for the shortgrass physiogonomy of this Southern High Plains grassland. The community more typical of mixed prairie (more species-rich) was featured in the foreground to show the biological diversity of plains grassland, but the less diverse blue grama-buffalograss community of the background was the more common community on this cattle range.

Commanche National Grassland, Baca County, Colorado. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K- 61 (Wheatgrass-Grama-Buffalograss) in foreground; K-58 (Grama-Buffalograss) in background. SRM 715 (Grama-Buffalograss). Grama "Short-Grass" Series of Brown et al. (1998). Hardland range site. Hardland range site. High Plains- Flat to Rolling Plains Ecoregion, 25d (Chapman et al., 2005).

371. High Plains grassland- This was another example of the shortgrass physiogonomy form of mixed prairie. Blue grama, buffalograss, and galleta (in that order) were dominant species though mid-grass species were common (western wheatgrss, sideoats grama, sand dropseed, and Indian ricegrass were well-represented while prairie junegrass was present but infrequent in this sward). Common plains yucca or soapweed yucca was present as the major forb, but it was more conspicuous than it was common. Widely scattered (barely present) shrubs were cholla and four-wing saltbush.

Crowley County, Colorado. July. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K- 58 (Grama-Buffalograss). SRM 715 (Grama-Buffalograss). Grama "Short-Grass" Series of Brown et al. (1998). Loamy Plains range site. Southwestern Tablelands- Piedmont Plains and Tablelands Ecoregion, 26e (Chapman et al., 2006).

372. Shortgrass plains- This landscape was included to show viewers the classic blue grama-buffalograss community interpreted by many prairiemen as a shortgrass disclimax (a grazing or zootic disturbance climax). Beginning range students are referred to Weaver and Albertson (1954, ps. 19-25). The two shortgrass species "have a monopoly" on the plant-growing resources of this ecosystem. As with the grassland communities seen in preceding slides such species as western wheatgrass, sideoats grama, and galleta were also present. Threeawns (Aristida species) were very rare while shrubs and even forbs were non-existant for all practical purposes. Textbook example of shortgrass plains grassland.

From the collection of examples presented here the most ardent plainsmen and fans of the "shortgrass country" can understand why plains-weary travelers (and some "foreigners" not so travel-weary) find this landscape so monotonous and boring. To the true plainsman, however, it is "God's Country" and the finest place on Earth.

Elbert County, Colorado. Estival aspect, July. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-58 (Grama-Buffalograss). SRM 715 (Grama-Buffalograss). Grama "Short-Grass" Series of Brown et al. (1998). Southwestern Tablelands- Piedmont Plains and Tablelands Ecoregion, 26e (Chapman et al., 2006).

373. Blue grama grassland in the worst of drought- A consociation of blue grama in the Raton section of the Great Plains province with large plants so large that they had semi-sodforming bases. This was the appearance of a destocked range at beginning of the third year into a drought that measured Extraordinary (the highest or most severe category of the Palmer Drought Severity Index). The author did not know when cattle had been taken off this range, but no livestock had grazed it any during the current warm-growing season.

There were trace amounts of both western wheatgrass and buffalograss in this grassland vegetation with first one and then other of these two species having somewhat more cover and shoot density. This was essentially a "pure" stand (population) of blue grama with an occasional local group of cholla cactus plants that averaged about two or three plants per acre. Interestingly enough there were relatively few plants of plains pricklypear in this range plant community. Cholla did not have density or cover enough to come close to qualifying as a savanna, but there clearly was a woody plant component--sparse though it was--to this climax range vegetation. There were also widely scattered plants of soapweed yucca (Yuccca glauca) though it was so dry they didn't dare bloom.

A range just across the fence in lower range condition (Good condition class) had some plants of bottlebrush squrreltail, red threeawn, and sand dropseed. This range had more species diversity, but these were increasers or invaders (for this range site) so that range was in lower successional status.

Huerfano County, Colorado. Late June (early estival aspect in Extraordinary drought). FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-58 (Grama-Buffalograss). SRM 611 (Blue Grama-Buffalo Grass) and/or 715 (Grama-Buffalograss). Grama "Short-Grass" Series of Brown et al. (1998). Southwestern Tablelands- Piedmont Plains and Tablelands Ecoregion, 26e (Chapman et al., 2006).

374. Droughted out, but not droughted away- Sward of a consociation of blue grama in the Raton section of the Great Plains physiographic province. Two "photoquadrants" of the range vegetation introduced in the two immediately preceding photographs. Almost all herbage was that of blue grama with limited cover of buffalograss and western wheatgrass and less cover yet of red threeawn. The latter was an increaser on this range site while the former two were decreasers and could be regarded as associate species with slightly more cover and shoot density of one or the other grasses varying at local scale. At peak flowering time for both buffalograss and western wheatgrass, but essentially all plants (of all species except cholla cactus) were in drought dormancy. This range had been suffering from Extraordinary drought (worst category as measured on the Palmer Drought Severity Scale) for this and the preceding growing season. It had been destocked (except for free-ranging wildlife such as pronghorn) at some point the previous year and had zero livestock grazing so far in the current growing season. From looking at remaining (dead) sexual shoots remaining from last year and its Extraordinary drought this range had not been grazed for the past two growing seasons.

Recent light rains had moistened the soil surface enough to bring about green-up of basal shoots with leaves looking fairly vigorous. Amazing what the native plants can do in the harshness of this drought-prone semiarid environment.

Beginning students should not confuse range feed condition with ecological range condition class. Rough though this range looked as to current feed conditions (not enough herbage to profitably sustain livestock grazing) it was in Excellent range condition class being the climax vegetation (the range plant community was probably in as high an ecological/successional status as the pristine range under buffalo grazing).

375. Grassland with two botanical masters and a high-ranking lieutenant- Great Plains grassland co-dominated by blue grama and galleta and with cholla cactus as an associate. Another shortgrass plains grasslant tending to a mixed prairie on the Raton section of the Great Plains. Like the preceding range, this one was in Excellent range condition class even though it was suffering from the stress of Extraordinary drought (as ranked on the Palmer Index). In this climax range vegetation cholla (again, as in the preceding example) was not present at relative proportions (cover, density, general aspect abundance) sufficient to be interpreted as a savanna. Cholla is as native as the co-dominant eragrostoid grasses and all species were in general rank of abundance as to be representative of the potential natural vegetation.

There were some widely scattered patches of the rhizomatous western wheatgrass and stoloniferous buffalograss that formed local "sod carpets". There were quite a number of plants of the cespitose red threeawn which was probably an increaser on this range site/type. Sand dropseed--as would be expected--was present, but just enough to mention. There were very few isolated plants of wavyleaf thistle (Cirsium undulatum). Otherwise this was a rather simple range plant coummunity.

Pueblo County, Colorado. Late June (early estival aspect in Extraordinary drought). FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). Variant of K-58 (Grama-Buffalograss). SRM 705 (Blue Grama-Galleta). Grama "Short-Grass" Series of Brown et al. (1998). Southwestern Tablelands- Piedmont Plains and Tablelands Ecoregion, 26e (Chapman et al., 2006).

376. Shrubs on grassland in right proportions- A local group of cholla catctus plants growing on the blue grama-galleta grassland range preented in the preceding slide. In this climax range vegetation cholla typically grew in groups of four to six or seven individual plants. Apparently some of these were the sexual progeny of others. This seemed to be the generational relationship based on some plants being substantially larger (so presumedly older) than others. Smaller plants grew at such distance from larger ones (roughly two to three feet) that the possibility of clonal plants (offshoots or modules) was ruled out.

Instead it seemed obvious that individual plants were unique genotypes arising from bountiful fruit-seed production. Such a heavy seed crop seemed on its way for the current year based on super-abundant inflorescences such as shown here. Of course, cactus flowers are so colorful anyway. There is remarkable beauty in the shortgrass country if one chooses to see it.

Organization note: in close proximity to the examples of blue grama and blue grama-galleta ranges on drier uplands that were presented immediately above there were ranges at slightly lower elevations (lower topographic features) and deeper soils dominated exclusively by galleta and exclusively by alkali sacaton (ie. consociations of these singular species). These lowland range cover types were shown near the beginning (top) of this chapter in order to "pen" examples of range types together (ie. organization was by range type not geographic location or spatial occurrence of range plant communities). However, the viewer can still get a sense of this range vegetation "organization" (patterns of the various range types and sites) at landscape scale by "galloping" back to start of the circle and quickly finding the examples by county (Pueblo and Otero Counties, Colorado in this instance).

These upland range types together with the two more lowland types constituted a spatial alignment of range plant communities along a catena or toposequence. A toposequence is a sequence of soils (series and/or associations) that developed along a topographic gradient under similar climate and parent material and that are of similar ages so that most differences in these soils is due mostly to relief. These differences in soils correspond to different range sites with the result that differences in potential natural (climax) range vegetation are due primarily to edaphic variations.

The arrangement of range cover types aligned along the catena can be seen by viewing the above galleta-dominated range and alkali sacaton flat with the two range types presented immediately above.

377. If it ain't drought; its prairie dogs- "Dog town" of blacktailed prairie dog on a (former) blue grama-buffalograss-western wheatgrass mixed prairie range. This particular grazing unit was cut into a relatively small pasture of an odd size so that grazing by livestock had been curtailed long ago. Blacktailed prairie dogs moved in and they, with exception of a few blacktailed jackrabbits (Lepus californicus), and pronghorn, were the only mammalian herbivores. Prairie dogs degraded this former mixed prairie into a weed patch of field bindwed (Convolvulus arvensis) and tansy leaf aster (aster tanacetifolius). The aster is an annual composite while the bindweed is a perennial morning-glory. Both are native to this region, but are also particularily noxious weeds and pioneer species of severely degraded ranges, old fields, abandoned schoolyards, roadcuts, etc.

Common experience (even cursury observations) have shown common field bindweed to be quite palatable to many animal species including cattle. Blacktailed prairie dogs also feed on field bindweed, but it is so aggresive and competitive that it manages to survive under extremely heavy prairie dog use.

This author was not privy to the history of this particular piece of rangeland other than to be inforrmed that prairie dogs had been established on it for a number of years, and that it had been depleted to this pioneer plant stage for a long time. This depleted range served as an example of how native fauna can overgraze and degrade natural range vegetation. It appears that nobody today can provide a rationale explanation as to why in the earliest time of white man records blacktailed prairie dogs had not devestated thousands or even hundreds of thousands of acres of Great Plains grassland to the degree of ranage depletion that--as shown in this example--extensive colonies of this fossorial (burrowing; ground-dwelling) rodent havee caused in contemporary times. Perhaps in days of the virgin range blacktailed prairie dog populations were forced to move more frequently when and where there were more natural predators, free-ranging native herbivores (from buffalo to prairie dogs to gophers to elk), and no artificial (human) barriers like roads, irrigation cannels, fenced pastures, and cultivated fields. All such speculation noted (and then set aside), it must be remarked objectively that under many human impacts blacktailed prairie dogs have frequently (typically, perhaps) been overgrazing and degrading ranges to such extent that the white man has waged war via poisoning campaigns against these native rodents for well over a century.

Even the most cursory view of this range revealed that has been degraded to the lowest possible seral stage above bare soil. These two photographs provided the answer to the question, Why have stockmen been so relentless in their destruction of the blacktailed prairie dog. Again, scenes of devestated range like this may have been much been rare to very confined prior to man's arrival on North American range. (Incidentially, that includes the redman who, although of much earlier arrival, is no more native than the now-predominant white race.) God alone knows the answer to this ecological riddle. What we know now is what we see.

Otero County, Colorado. Late June (early estival aspect; peak bloom stage of the two range forbs). FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-58 (Grama-Buffalograss). SRM 611 (Blue Grama-Buffalo Grass) and/or 715 (Grama-Buffalograss). Grama "Short-Grass" Series of Brown et al. (1998). Southwestern Tablelands- Piedmont Plains and Tablelands Ecoregion, 26e (Chapman et al., 2006).

Three progressively closer views of a mixed prairie with galleta, blue grama, and sideoats grama as the three principal species (= tri-dominants). Other important grass species included western wheatgrass, buffalograss, alkali sacaton, sand dropseed, bottlebrush squirreltail (Sitanion hystrix), and purple threawn (Aristida purpurea) or, as the case may have been, red threeawn (A. longiseta = a subspecies of A. purpurea). The short-growing (and heavily browsed) shrub, winter fat (Eurotia lanata) gave something of a shrub savanna form to this grassland that had developed in the Raton section of the Great Plains physiographic province and that was serving as a stocker range.

The main sod-forming grasses of galleta, western wheatgrass, and buffalograss as well as the bunchgrasses, blue grama, sideoats grama, and alkali sacaton had assembled as local populations (ie. mostly single-species stands) such that the grassland plant community was a mosaic of more-or-less exclusive patches rather than a more homogenous mixture or random assortment of species. Less frequent species such as sand dropseed and purple threeawn among grasses and the chenopod shrub, winterfat appeared to be evenly distirubted among the single-species patches. (This spatial arrangement of plant species was presented in the third three-slide/caption set of this grassland stocker range below; see especially the first photograph of that set.)

This range was being heavily utilizeed by the steers. See fenceline difference as indicator of heavy use in the next set of three slides...

Colfax County, New Mexico. Late July. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). Variant of K-58 (Grama-Buffalograss). SRM 705 (Blue Grama-Galleta). Grama "Short-Grass" Series of Brown et al. (1998). Southwestern Tablelands- Upper Canadian Plateau Ecoregion 26l (Griffith et al., 2006).

More apparent than real- Fenceline contrast of a mixed prairie used as stocker range with galleta, blue grama, and sideoats grama as tri-dominants. Other range plants included buffalograss, western wheatgrass, alkali sacaton, sand dropseed, purple (or red) threeawn, bottlebrush squirreltail, and the chenopodacious shrub, winterfat.

In spite of obvious differences in outward appearance between the grazed stocker range and the ungrazed (other than minor defoliation so-limited-as-to-be undectitable) outer fencerow the stark contrast was mostly due to greater degree of use in the pasture rather than any substantive difference in species composition. While grazing use was obviously heavy with reduced cover of all range plants (and, consequent greater bare soil) occular estimates of percent or proportional species composition were similar inside and outside of the mixed prairie stocker range. Two pronounced exceptions (though more appaarent than actual) were 1) greater relative cover of buffalograss and 2) less relative cover of winterfat on the grazed grassland. The sod-forming habit of the short-grass species versus the upright growth form of the shrub accounted for this and illustrated the adaptiv, competitive advantage of the low-growing, sprawling buffalograss. Even in this stark comparison, however, differences were not as great under knees-on-the-ground, cow-eye-level close scrunity than walking-by, casual observations. (Contrary to the typical situation, "first impressions" in this regard can be misleading or downright erroneous.)

Degree of use of wintefat was excessive (ie. overuse), but even with improper, excessive utilization--and one would assume that past graing management and this pattern of use by cattle had been the same in preceding years--the highly palatable winterfat had persisted on the range. Again, however, based on both size of crowns and biomass, there was reduced cover and vigor of individual plants of winterfat as well as the proportion of this palatable (preferred) shrub in the range plant community. From standpoint of the relative proportion of winterfat on this range, grazing was (and probably had been in past years) excessive and could be regarded as overgrazing, at least in regards to winterfat.

Overall, range condition class of this mixed prairie stocker pasture was high Good to low Excellent. It was a good example of climax mixed prairie on the Raton section of the Great Plains physiographic province. This was quite likely the ecological condition of this grassland when it belonged to the buffalo (bison) and indigenous Indian tribes such as the Pueblo and Ute.

The reason for the different colors between the second and third photographs was difference in orientation to predominant direction of sunlight: the second slide was taken with the sun behind while third slide was taken facing (more or less) the sun (one shot was taken inside the stocker range while other shot was taken outside the range from outer fencerow.)

Incidentally, smaller and well-worn cattle paths just inside the fenceline, such as the well-defined single-file animal trail visible in the second and third slides, are characteristic of stocker cattle. Typically caow-calf pairs do not walk fencelines leaving such trails of trampled-out pasture vegetation.

Colfax County, New Mexico. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). Variant of K-58 (Grama-Buffalograss). SRM 705 (Blue Grama-Galleta). Grama "Short-Grass" Series of Brown et al. (1998). Southwestern Tablelands- Upper Canadian Plateau Ecoregion 26l (Griffith et al., 2006).

Ungrazed mixture- Three "photoquadrants" of ungrazed* sward (outer fencerow) of the mixed prairie stocker range presented in the two three-slide/caption sets immediately above. The first or upper slide was view at larger spatial scale showing local populations (or, perhaps, clonal stands) of the various range plant species, the three major ones being galleta, blue grama, and sideoats in that general or overall order based on foliar cover. A comparatively large plant of winterfat, a chenopod shrub, was in right midground. Plants of buffalograss, western wheatgrass, and alkali sacaton were also present in this first "photoquadrant".

The second and third "photoquadrants" showed part of the sward in which galleta was dominant (large grass clump in center of image) followed by blue grama. There were also plants of western wheatgrass, buffalograss, alkali sacaton, bottlebrush squirreltail, and purple (or red) threeawn (these latter grass species were indistinguishable from each other at this camera distance).

Plants on this range (and outside fencerow) were growing in a drier-than-average summer, but rains so recent that the soil surface was still wet had restored plentiful moisture to the soil solum. In typical response, these perennial species had responded quickly with growth of new shoots and "re-greened" existing shoots. By the way, the author did not find any plants or plant residue of annual grasses on this grassland.

Any grazing would have been minor with native fauna from deer and pronghorn down to smaller mammals like jackrabbits (hares) and insects.

Mixed Prairie of the Llano Estacado (Staked Plains)

Regional form of mixed prairie in Texas- The sideoats grama-silver bluestem range type is the regional climax, the general or region-wide form, of Texas mixed prairie. Weaver and Albertson (1956, ps. 269-270) listed these as the major climax mid-grasses (decreasers). Sand dropseed and purple threeawn were the third and fourth listed species and interpreted as increasers. Important shortgrasses were blue grama, bufalograss, and hairy grama which were regarded generally as increasers, depending on range site (eg. blue grama responds as decreaser on hardland range sites). Western wheatgrass, plains bristlegrass, cane bluestem (Andropogon barbinodis), galleta, curly mesquite, needle-and-thread, Arizona cottontop, fall witchgrass (Leptoloma cognatum) and Texas wintergrass (Stipa leucotricha) were grasses reported as growing in more "limited areas of the southern Mixed Prairie" in contrast to the first four dominants "that are found throughout".

In his original description of major units of the native vegetation of North America Clements (1920, 135-139) limited his discussion of the mixed prairie (his Stipa-Bouteloua Association) only as far south as the northern portion of the Southern Great Plains (northern New Mexico and Colorado). Weaver and Clements (1938, ps. 523-524) expanded coverage of the mixed prairie, but did so for the entire mixed prairie association and listed the dominants for this immense region as those with widest distribution throughout. Weaver and Albertson (1956) extended coverage and added much detail to the original work of Clements (1920) and Weaver and Clements, 1938) including separate chapters for most states which for Texas was authored by B.W. Allred as Mixed Prairie in Texas (Weaver and Albertson,1956; chapter 16). Thence, the sideoats grama-silver bluestem (two dominant decreasers) as the major range type for "normal upland soils" (ie. the zonal or regional climax in the Clementsian monoclimax framework).

Authors desiring descriptions of mixed prairie vegetation in Texas from a synoptic scale greater or more general than range sites probably will not find more recent coverage than that of Allred in Weaver and Clements, 1956). The closest the current author could find was that of Fuhlendorf et al. (2002) who briefly described range vegetation of the Rolling Red Plains of west-central Oklahoma. Listed as the dominant mid-grasses were sideoats grama, purple threeawn, and silver bluestem and dominant shortgrasses were blue grama, buffalograss, and hairy grama; tallgrasses were less abundant (Fuhlendorf et al., 2002).

Within biomes, the largest plant-animal biotic community (grassland, shrubland, savanna, marsh, tundra, etc.), there are the next largest or most general communities as, for example, tallgrass prairie, true prairie, mixed prairie, shortgrass plains, etc. for the North American grassland biome. The smallest distinctive units of range vegetation (opposite end from biomes of the organizational hierarchy of natural plant communities ) are the range sites. Just "above" (more general, more inclusive than) range site in the hierarchy of range communities and immediately "below" such community units of, say, true prairie or mixed prairie is the level of the range type which is synomymous with dominance type, the designation of range plant communities based on and named for dominant plant species. Range Types of North America is obviously aimed primarily at the range type level of range vegetation organization.

The short section below presented the sideoats grama-silver bluestem range type that is probably the regional climax range vegetation for the Southern Mixed Prairie. Whatever the explanation, this range type did not appear in Rangeland Cover Types (Shiflet, 1994), a publication by the Society for Range Management that came closest to providing comprehensive coverage of North American rangeland types.

378. Regional climax of Southern Mixed Prairie- Textbook example of sideoats grama-silver bluestem (co-dominants) range type with sand droposeed the associate species. Major shortgrass was buffalograss with hairy grama and hooded windmillgrass associate shortgrasses. Blue grama and curly mesquite were distant "runners-up" among shortgrass species. Little bluestem was the only tallgrass species of any consequence. Annual broomweed was the major forb.Only a few plants of broom snakeweed, a subshrub, could be found. The only woody species of apparent consequence was lotebush (Zizphius obtusifolia= Condalia obtusifolia); honey mesquite hd been all but eliminated through recent mechanical means.

This was a picture-perfect example of the regional or zonal (average and most common form or variant of) climaax of the Southern Mixed Prairie. It provided the model of its type, sideoats grama-silver bluestem cover type. This landowner knew what he had and it was obvious that he cherished it. A well-earned tip of the hat to this faithful range steward.

Howard County, Texas. Mid-October; autumnal aspect, peak standing crop just prior to onset of dormancy. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-62 (Bluestem-Grama Prairie). No SRM ("believe it or not") for the regional (or subregional) or zonal climax. which was sideoats grama-silver bluestem mixed prairie. Mixed "Short-Grass" Series, 142.13, of Plains Grassland biotic community (Brown et al.1998, p. 40). High Plains- Llano Estacado Ecoregion 25i (Griffith et al., 2004).

379. Why it's called mixed prairie- Sward of climax Southern Mixed Prairie with mixture and mosaic of midgrasses and shortgrasses. Dominant mid-grasses were silver bluestem, sideoats grama, and sand dropseed while the dominant shortgrass was buffalo grass. Other grasses included hooded windmillgrass, hairy grama, blue grama, and needle grama (Bouteloua aristoides), the latter of which was restricted to edge of a local (microsite) disturbance (right fore- to midground of second slide). Annual broomweed was the most common forb followed by Texas croton (Croton texensis), both of which were uncommon. No woody species grew in these two typical "photoplots". Obviously this was Excellent range condition class: the virgin range as the redman knew it.

Staked Plains Mixed Prairie- The following series of slides of range vegetation and plants were taken on the Muleshoe National Wildlife Refuge in early October and showed the early autumnal aspect of the general range ecosystem representative of the natural climax grassland (mixed prairie) of the Southern High Plains (Llano Estacado) of the bluestem-grama range type (SRM 714). The examples of range plant communities presented varied in range condition class from local relicts of Excellent to overall low Good down to high Fair. Most of the plant species and individual plants in this range vegetation had recently become dormant (early dormancy stage of phenology), but some of the latest-maturing, late summer/autumn-blooming species were at peak standing crop and full-bloom to fruit-ripe phenology. Cool season species such as western wheatgrass had been normant for several months and were "thinking about" initiation of new growth for their next growing season. The ever-changing range.

The major range site represented below was Mixed Land which according to the Soil Survey of Bailey County, Texas (Soil Conservation Service, 1963, ps. 39-40) was a blue grama-sideoats grama-lLittle bluestem-plains bristlegrass-Arizona cottontop range plant community. Although the SCS (1963) Soil Survey clearly listed little bluestem as the dominant decreaser it is almost 100% certain that it is silver bluestem and/or cane bluestem and not little bluestem that is/are the domianat tallgrass species. This conclusion is based on this authors long-observed tendency of SCS/NRCS range site descriptions to incorrectly extend little bluestem, as the least mesic of the Four Horsemen of thePrairies, as a dominant decreaser far too far westward into the drier portions of the semiarid plains where silver and/or cane bluestems are the ecological equivalent of little bluestem.

This conclusion based on personal observation and experience was inconsistent with conclusions and descriptions in the classic literature. The most specific and crediable example of this was likely that of Allred (in Weaver and Albertson, 1956, ps. 270-272) who in describing Texas grasslands interpreted sideoats grama and silver beardgrass (silver bluestem) as "climax dominants" and grazing-response as decreasers whereas sand dropseed and purplethreeawn sere "dominants that are found throughout but that "are designated as increasers". Allred (in Weaver and Albertson, 1956, p. 272) further concluded: "Cane bluestem is one of the superior bluestems found largely in the southern half of the southern Mixed Prairie. It reseembles silver beardgrass and is often mistaken for it since intergrades of the two species are common". (Incidentially this taxonomic or more precisely, morphological relationship among these bluestems was not recognized by Gould [1975, ps.591-593, 600-601] or Allred, who followed Gould's lead, [in Barkworth et al., 2003, ps. 639-644] when identification was based on length of sessile spikelets.)

Perhaps the most substantiative general interpretation of the successional rank (or status) of silver bluestem on the High Plains was that of Clements (1920, ps. 132, 133, 134). Viewed from Clements' monoclimax model of vegetation bluestem-dominated grasslands were subclimax praire (the Andropogon associes) which in contemporary usage is the tallgrass prairie, that is in or part of the regional Stipa-Bouteloua Formation. This formation, a regional or zonal (climatic) climax, included climax True Prairie and climax Mixed Prairie as well as the subclimax prairie (Clements, 1920, ps. 114, 118-124, 131-134). In the Andropogon associes (association was the Clementsian term reserved to denote the climax unit) Clements (1920, p. 132) recognized a silver bluestem consociation along with consociations for big bluestem, little bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, sideoats grama, and Canada wildrye. Furthermore Clements (1920,p. 133) regarded silver bluestem as intermediate between big bluestem and little bluestem in its water requ;irements. Clearly in this context Clements regarded silver bluestem as of the same or equivalent successional rank as the more commonly regarded tallgrass and midgrass speciesohtkon successional.

Descriptions of rangeland cover types by the Society for Range Management (Shiflet, 1994) that partially described the more xeric forms of mixed prairie included SRM 714 (Grama-Bluestem), SRM 709 (Bluestem-Grama), and SRM 706 (Blue Grama-Sideoats Grama). Each of these three cover type descriptions (by three different authors) listed little bluestem as either a dominant (SRM 714 and SRM 709) or associate (SRM 706) and with big and/or sand bluestem and Indiangrass as associate species (SRM 714 and SRM 709). Silver bluestem was included only in SRM 709 and as a member of "lower seral stages". Both SRM 714 and SRM 709 cover types were described as having physiogonomies of tall and mid-grass aspects. Omission of or relegation of silver bluestem to less than climax decreaser status in SRM descriptions (Shiflet, 1994, ps. 88, 89-90, 93) was inconsistent with the earlier interpretation of successional status of silver bluestem in the High Plains by Allred (in Weaver and Clements, 1956, 270-272). Rangeland cover descriptions were, however, consistent with Nofal et al. (2004) who described silver bluestem as a "a mid-seral, mid-grass". The layman's classic Pasture & Range Plants (Phillips Petroleum Company, 1963; Fort Hays StateUniversity, 2006) specified that in areas of lower precipitation silver bluestem "is often grazed out". This suggested that silver bluestem is more sensitive to abusive grazing and hence of higher successional status in drier range habitats.

Role of and seral or climax rank of purple threeawn in mixed prairie also remains an open question. Perhaps even more so than silver bluestem. Clements (1920, p. 142) included Aristida purpurea as part of the buffalograss-blue grama community in the shortgrass range country of Texas and as part of the blue grama-black grama (Bouteloua eriopoda) vegetation westward into New Mexico and Arizona. Some of the latter included semidesert grasslands, Clements' Desert Plains, in which A. purpurea "in its several forms" was the first named climax dominant of the Aristida-Bouteloua Association complete with an A. purpurea consociation (Clements, 1920, ps.144-146). Clements (1920, p.115, 119) also regarded A. purpurea as a dominant with little bluestem (though, as indicated two paragraphs above, both were interpreted as subclimax) in the Stipa-Bouteloua Formation. Clements (1920, ps. 95, 140) recognized however that Aristida species did invade overgrazed grassland and abandoned cropland. The confused or ambiguous successional ranking of purple threeawn was explained above when that species was introduced.

It is "all well and good" (at least it is acceptable) to generalize sideoats grama and silver bluestem as increasers and members of the purple threeawn (Aristida purpurea) complex as invaders for lay audiences and beginning students as, for example, simplified rules for the Texas Future Farmers of America Range Contest. For more precise purposes in both professional Range Management and research in Range Science species designations as to grazing response (eg. decreaer, increaser, invader), dominance, and influences on the plant community or range ecosystem must be more specific (as in range site-specific). Whereas some range species are always decreasers most species vary as to their responses to disturbance and general succcessional status from range site to range site and from one range region to the next. This is clearly the case with species on mixed prairie. Little bluestem is generally a decreaser, but silver bluestem and sideoats grama are decreaser, increaser, or invader depending on range site or even range microsite (microhabitat). Taxa in the purple threeawn complex are clearly invaders on tallgrass prairie, but they are increasers or even decreasers on some range sites in mixed and shortgrass prairies (and frequently or even typically decreasers on some range habitats in the southwestern deserts).

On the more xeric mixed prairie ranges featured in this section the current author regarded silver bluestem rather than or in addition to little bluestem as the potential natural climax tallgrass dominant of these grasslands in the southern Staked Plains. Other major and, on certain habitats, decreaser grasses included sideoats grama, the dominant midgrass species, blue grama, the dominant shortgrass species, sand dropseed, hairy grama, alkali sacaton, purple (and, perhaps, red) threeawn, buffalograss, and plains bristlegrass.Minor grasses included little bluestem, galleta, vine mesquite, Canada wildrye, and black grama. Major forbs were broom snakeweed (if this is regarded as a subshrub), annual broomweed, western ragwed, mare's-tail or horseweed, Engelmann aster, and kochia. Major shrubs were honey mesquite, sand sagebrush, plains pricklypear, skunkbush sumac, walking stick cholla, southwestern rabbitbrush, and broom snakeweed (if this semiwoody composite was interpreted as a shrub). Along draws and streams (ephemeral and permanent) there was an arboreal element comprised of netleaf hackberry (Celtis reticulata).

380. Mixed Prairie range of the Llano Estacado- Three views of climax mixed prairie comprised of a diversity of mid- and shortgrass species including silver bluestem, "tad bit" of little bluestem, purple threeawn, sideoats grama, blue grama, hairy grama, "smidgen" of black grama, sand dropseed, vine mesquite, alkali sacaton, buffalograss, , western wheatgrass, galleta, plains bristlegrass, Canada wildrye, some curly mesquite, horseweed or mare's-tail, annual broomweed, broom snakeweed, western ragweed, soapweed yucca, kochia, Engelmann aster, plains pricklypear, walkingstick cholla, honey mesquite, skunkbush sumac, sand sagebrush, southwestern rabbitbrush, and netleaf hackberry. All-in-all, amazing species diversity.

Typical physiogonomy of vegetation and topography of land. Rangeland that was basically unaltered since days when the Commanche and Kiowa ruled these Staked Plains. Range condition class varied (almost as much as local range plant communities) from high Fair to low Excellent.

Range vegetation shown in the first of these three photographs showed the phytodiversity of this climax or near-climax plant community including mesquite and netleaf hackberry. Range vegetation in the foreground was a mixture of silver bluestem (left) and various gramas including blue, hairy, and sideoats (center and right; generally the dominant species based on cover and biomass) along with purple threeawn. Forbs were largely absent, but included Fendler's aster and Riddell's groundsel (Senecio riddellii), both of which were visible in foreground vegetation. Soapweed yucca, interpreted by some rangemen as a forb and by others as a shrub, was present as widely scattered individuals.

The second photograph featured a local relict stand dominated by silver bluestem (with some little bluestem) and a diverse mix of mid- and shortgrasses, especially the grama species named above and sand dropseed. Conspicuous in this second (and also the third photograph) were the dead, slender shoots of the annual composite, horseweed or mare's-tail, which is typically a first year-colonizer (invader) of drastically disturbed habitats like abandoned fields (usually the first two to three years after cessation of farming), sacrifice sites on range, and cut-over forests. Presence of horseweed on the relict rangeland site in Excellent range condition class seemed remarkable. The commonness of horseweed in climax (and virgin condition; undisturbed) mixed prairie rangeland may have reflected semiaridity and xericness of this range environment. It was also notworthy that honey mesquite was present at small amounts of cover as was soapweed yucca. Netleaf hackberry grew only in moist draws which ran water ephemerally.

The range plant community presented in the third of these three slides was dominated by silver bluestem which is probably a cecreaser and the natural dominant on this range site in this more xeric portion of the semiarid zone. Sand dropseed was the major associate species to silver bluestem in this third photo-plot.

Muleshoe National Wildlife Refuge, Bailey County, Texas. October. Autumnal aspect; various phenological stages but mostly early dormancy and secondly flowering and fruit-ripe. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-58 (Grama-Buffalograss) and K-62 (Bluestem-Grama Prairie). Several Society for Range Management (Shiflet, 1994) rangeland cover types, but especially SRM 709 (Bluestem-Grama), SRM 714 (Grama-Bluestem), and, locally, partches of SRM 722 (Sand Sagebrush-Mixed Prairie). Mixed "Short-Grass" Series, 142.13, of Plains Grassland biotic community (Brown et al.1998, p. 40). Mixed Land range site. High Plains- Llano Estacado Ecoregion 25i (Griffith et al., 2004).

381. Straightness of the Staked Plains- The Southern High Plains portion of the Great Plains physiographic province has one of the "most nearly level" land surfaces on Earth. This and the "starkness" of the Llano Estacado, the original Spanish name for the Southern High Plains and from which the English Staked Plains was derived, was presented in this landscape-scale view of mixed prairie range.

Walking stick cholla served as a "living stake" while broom snakeweed, a shrub or subshrub, added a tint of yellow-green to a mixed prairie dominated locally by different mixes of various species including silver bluestem, traces of little bluestem, purple threeawn, sideoats grama, blue grama, hairy grama and even small cover of black grama, sand dropseed, western wheatgrass, galleta, plains bristlegrass, vine mesquite, alkali sacaton, buffalograss, curly mesquite. The tall, rank horseweed or mare's-tail, was conspicuous. Less obvious forbs and shrubs included annual broomweed, western ragweed, soapweed yucca, kochia, and plains pricklypear.

Details (close-in views) of this vegetation were presented in the next set of two slides.

382. Vegetational study of the Staked Plains range- Successively closer-in views of the range plant community introduced in the preceding slide. At local, micro-site scale this grassland (mixed prairie) vegetation was composed as (consisted of) various distinct plant communities (ie. plant communities within the larger or overall plant community). Some of these local range plant communities were dominated by silver bluestem while others were made up almost exclusively of gramagrasses (sideoats, blue, hairy gramas) or, alternatively, existed as either stands of purple threeawn or purple threeawn and gramas. Still yet other "micro-communities" (for lack of a more precise term) existed as slightly more species-rich vegetation with broom snakeweed as a shrub or subshrub that sometimes appeared as the aspect dominant.

The second of these two slides presented an example of the latter range plant community in which broom snakeweed was intermixed with a stand of mixed prairie dominated by silver bluestem.

383. Another photographic study of Staked Plains vegetation- The cespitose (bunchgrass) growth form of mid- and shortgrass species produced the open sward physiogonomy of mixed prairie on another part of the same range featured in the two preceding photographs and caption sets. Here silver bluestem along with sideoats, blue, and hairy gramas dominated a clay soil on land that sloped down from a slight rise to a swale. Purple threeawn, like the robust specimen featured in the foreground, occurred sporatically at a relative degree or level that was probably climax for this this range type and range site. Honey mesquite and soapweed yucca were obviously present, but at cover best described as "micro-traces".

384. A widespread and prickly character- A specimen of plains pricklypear (Opuntia polycantha) growing in the sward presented in preceding photographs of mixed (mostly mid- and shortgrass species) prairie grassland on the Staked Plains. This cactus grows throughout almost the entire latitudinal extent of the Great Plains from the southern most part of the Llano Estacado to the Canadian Prairie Provinces.

Plains pricklypear is of such short stature that all but the shortest grass species (eg. buffalograss) overtop it. As such almost any fire regard less of intensity, rate of spread, etc. will kill high proportions of this cactus.

Muleshoe National Wildlife Refuge, Bailey County, Texas. October.

385. For good measure- Another pair of photographs presented a more mesic habitat in a draw on the Staked Plains (Southern High Plains) on the same range described in the immediately preceding three sets of photographs and their captions. This local range plant community was a "nearly solid stand" of western wheatgrass that could be interpreted as either a population or, alternatively, a Clementsian consociation but with sand sagebrush as a woody component so that this was savannah vegetation.

This western wheatgrass-sand sagebrush savannah had developed on a relatively low north slope above a draw with an ephemeral stream supporting more mesic range vegetation dominated by netleaf hackberry, plains bristlegrass, western wheatgrass, Canada wildrye, and various forbs. This latter range plant community was described below. This savanna was an ecotone among the general plant communities of the more mesic gentle stream channel and draw and the varied range vegetation of the Mixed Land range site described above.

Western wheatgrass is a cool season festicuoid grass that, on this range environment typically completes its annual growth by June or, at latest, early July. Thus this species on this north slope habitat had been dormant for at least three months at time of photograph. Sand sagebrush was nearing fruit-ripe phenological stage.

Muleshoe National Wildlife Refuge, Bailey County, Texas. October. Autumnal aspect. Phenological stage of western wheatgrass was dormancy while sagebrush approached fruit-ripe. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-58 (Grama-Buffalograss) and K-62 (Bluestem-Grama Prairie). Several Society for Range Management (Shiflet, 1994) rangeland cover types, but especially SRM 709 (Bluestem-Grama), SRM 714 (Grama-Bluestem), and, locally, partches of SRM 722 (Sand Sagebrush-Mixed Prairie) which was the local range vegetation featured here. Mixed "Short-Grass" Series, 142.13, of Plains Grassland biotic community (Brown et al.1998, p. 40). Mixed Land range site. High Plains- Llano Estacado Ecoregion 25i (Griffith et al., 2004).

386. A shrub struts its stuff- Sand sagebrush in the western wheatgrass stand (consociation) presented in the two preceding photogrphs. Details of this plant were shown immediately below.

Muleshoe National Wildlife Refuge, Bailey County, Texas. October.

387. Leader of sand sagebrush (Artemisia filifolia)- General (overall) view of major branches of sand sagebrush on a north slope in mixed prairie (within a stand of western wheatgrass) of Texas Llano Estacado (Staked Plains). Leader in woody plants has been defined variously though usually something as to the effect as "the terminal shoot of the main stem" (Munns, 1950) or "the terminal, ie. topmost shoot,charactristic of the growth of certain plants or trees" (Helms, 1998). More generally leader is used by rangemen in reference to woody, especially, major shoots (often including branches) in shrubs and trees.

The vertical shoots of sand sagebrush as shown here emphasized the general morphology and arrangement of organs.

Muleshoe National Wildlife Refuge, Bailey County, Texas. October.

388. A study of sand sagebrush- Details of a major shoot (leader) in sand sagebrush.

Muleshoe National Wildlife Refuge, Bailey County, Texas. October.

389. Some variation (however slight) in Staked Plains physiography- Climax range vegetation in a draw that was the general channel of an ephemeral stream in mixed prairie in the Staked Plains. The much more mesic habitat of this lowland in comparison to the surrounding uplands resulted in this unique strip of range vegetation that was more typical of subhumid climate. This range plant community could be viewed as postclimax in the Clementsian monoclimax model or, alternatively, as a more mesic climax vegetation if viewed from standpoint of Tansian polyclimax theory.

The small trees were netleaf hackberry. Major (dominant) grasses were plains bristlegrass, western wheatgrass, and Canada wildrye. Sideoats grama was the most widely occurring associate grass species. Major forbs included horseweed or mare's-tail, kochia, and Fendler's aster.

Muleshoe National Wildlife Refuge, Bailey County, Texas. October. Autumnal aspect. This range vegetation was a more mesic range plant community within Staked Plains mixed prairie that developed as a narrow strip (as postclimax) and which was not mapped in major and general treatments like those of Kuchler (1964, 1966). Instead this was a variant of an overall larger unit of natural vegetation with the following designations. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). K-58 (Grama-Buffalograss) and K-62 (Bluestem-Grama Prairie). Several Society for Range Management (Shiflet, 1994) rangeland cover types, but especially SRM 709 (Bluestem-Grama), SRM 714 (Grama-Bluestem), and, locally, partches of SRM 722 (Sand Sagebrush-Mixed Prairie) which was the local range vegetation featured here. Mixed "Short-Grass" Series, 142.13, of Plains Grassland biotic community (Brown et al.1998, p. 40). High Plains- Llano Estacado Ecoregion 25i (Griffith et al., 2004).

390. Another climax dominant of Staked Plains mixed prairie- Plains bristlegrass (Setaria leucopila) on Llanon Estacado mixed prairie. This specimen and those that followed in this section were growing in the draw presented in the immediately preceding photograph and on a slight north slope above the channel of the ephemeral stream in that draw.

Pains bristlegrass comprises a group of morphologically and, presumedly, genetically and taxonomically similar taxa.that have been interpreted variously. Gould (1975, ps. 555-559) explained how S. leucopila, S. macrostachya, S. texana, and S. scheelei were a taxonomic complex with hybridization among them likely. Hitchcock and Chase (1950, ps.721-723, 952-953) applied the species, S. macrostachya, so as to include plants previously designated as S. texana and S. leucopila,an arrangement that they named and described as plains bristlegrass. Gould (1975, ps. 557, 559) explained this noting that S. leucopila "is a highly variable species" He retained S. macrostachya as well as S. texana and S. scheelei (these latter three species without common names). Barkworth et al. (2003, ps. 542, 546-549) retained and described all four of these species using the common names Texas bristlegrass, plains bristlegrass, streambed bristlegrass, and southwestern bristlegrass (S. texana, S. macrostachya, S. leucopila, S. scheelei, respectively). Note the departure from Gould (1975) and the return to the treatment of Hitchcock and Chase (1950) when Barkworth et al. (2003) applied plains bristlegrass to S. macrostachya while using streambed bristlegrass for S. leucopila. The latter common name certainly descaribed the habitat on which specimens presented herein were growing. Incidentially, is it not amazing that in instances like this common names with their lack of (at least, very limited) scientific acceptance have often proved more useful and stable than the scientifiically ordained nomenclature?

Regardless of taxonomy and nomenclature plains bristlegrass is often a dominant, decreaser midgrass throughout much of the mixed prairie and on adjacent range types including transition grasslands that are ecotonal between mixed and shortgrass prairie and semidesert grasslands. This midgrass is both productive and palatable to grazers like cattle, buffalo, elk, and horses.

Muleshoe National Wildlife Refuge, Bailey County, Texas. October. Hard dought to near grain-ripe stages of phenology.

391. Shoot details of a mixed prairie decreaser- General and distant view of upper portions of shoots of plains bristlegrass in first slide followed in second slide with presentation of panicles and upper internodes (including flag leaf) of two shoots of this species.

Muleshoe National Wildlife Refuge, Bailey County, Texas. October. Hard dought stage of phenology.

392. Spiked panicles on the Staked Plains- Spikelike, contracted panicle of plains bristlegrass, including the flag leaf. The panicle of Setaria species is regarded as contracted (much like those of common grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor= S. vulgare) though considerable less so than in other panicles such as timothy (Phleum pratense). The branches of the Setaria panicle are appressed against the central stalk of this inflorescence thereby creating this contracted panicle.

Muleshoe National Wildlife Refuge, Bailey Couy, Texas. October. Hard dought stage of phenology.

393. Dueces high- Detailed views of paired spikelets on contracted panicles of plains birstlegrass. In the Paniceae (panicgrass tribe) many members have paired spikelets with these spikelets in turn frequently having paired (two) florets, the upper of which is perfect while the lower floret is reduced (or staminate or neuter). Spikelets in Setaria species are subtened by one to several bristles with disarticulation of spikelets above these bristles (Gould, 1975, p. 21, 24, 542). Spikelets of plains bristlegrass typically have a single birstle. This was shown in these two photographs. This morphological feature, and especially for this taxonomic complex, was also presented to good advantage in Barkworth et al. (2003, p. 549).

Muleshoe National Wildlife Refuge, Bailey Couy, Texas. October. Hard dought stage of phenology.

394. Another composite on the Staked Plains- Yet another in a long list of composites that calls the mixed prairie of the Southern High Plains its home. Fendler's aster (Aster fendleri) is a perennial forb representing the largest family of North American range forbs.

395. A composite neither white nor yellow- Details of foliage and inflorescence of Fendler's aster were shown on the specimen introduced in the preceding photograph.

396. At the edge- Mixed prairie grassland in an ecotone or transition zone between mixed prairie and semidesert grassland near the extreme eastern edge of the Chihuhuan Desert. This transition grassland had major plant species that were elements in both of these major grassland range types. In addition to honey mesquite, which is a important component in all three of these vegetational units, the most abundant herbaceous species--all of which were grasses--included sand dropseed, plains bristlegrass, hooded windmillgrass (Chloris cuculata), Wright's threeawn (Aristida wrightii), buffalograss, sideoats grama, Texas grama (Bouteloua rigidiseta), burrograss (Scleropogon brevifolius), and red grama (B. trifida). Cane bluestem (Andropogon barbinodis) and Arizona cottontop were present, but nowhere abundant enough to be regarded as key species although they are decreasers on this range type and range site.

Forbs were almost non-existent except for a few plants of Russian thistle. The woody fraction was limited to mesquite, the density, cover, etc. of which had been greatly reduced by chemical brush control using tebuthiron, N-[5-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazol-z-yl]-N,N-dimethylurea. Range condition class on this Loamy range site was probably low Good, but the author could not find any research-based, validatable descriptions of the potential natural (climax) vegetation for this range site. It is likely that such do not exist, at least not reliable ones. Nor did any of the Society for Range Management descriptions of rangeland cover types (Shiflet, 1994) apply to the natural range vegetation in this more xeric margin of mixed prairie. Plains bristlegrass, sideoats grama, cane bluestem, Arizona cottontop, Wright's threeeawn, and buffalograss were almost assuredly decreasers and general to local dominants depending on microsite. Decreaser status was less obvious and even more range site-specific for Wright's threeawn and buffalograss than for the more palatable midgrasses. Sand dropseed was most likely an increaser, but its status would also vary with range site and even microenvironment. Likewise, hooded windmillgrass would have been an increaser while Texas grama and burrograss were, as is almost always the case, herbaceous invaders. Honey mesquite was a woody invader, but it might well have been abundant enough in virgin vegetation that thand burrograss is range plant community could be interpreted as a climax mesquite-midgrass-shortgrass savana. There were scattered plants of plains pricklypear, the density and cover of which was probably consistent with that of the climax vegetation.

The range plant community in the first slide was dominated by buffalograss in center foreground (a more clayey, shallower microsite) while sand dropseed dominated over most of the rest of the herbaceous vegetation though there was a good representation of plains bristlegrass and Wright's threeawn with less of the three gramagrass species, Arizona cottontop, and cane bluestem. Herbaceous cover seen in the second slide was overwhelmingly that of hooded windmillgrass with only an occasional plant of sand dropseed and an incidental representative of sideoats grama, plains bristlegrass, Wright's threeawn, and cane bluestem. Most of the mesquite plants had beeen killed by tebuthiron, at least most had been topkilled with final outcome pending.

Railway Ranch, Upton County, Texas. Mid-October; peak standing crop at onset of plant dormancy. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). Closest Kuchler units was combination of K-58 (Grama-Buffalograss) and K-76 (Mesquite-Buffalograss) and these did not cover it. No SRM. Mixed "Short-Grass" Series, 142.13, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al.1998, p. 40). Loamy range site. High Plains- Arid Llano Estacado, 25k (Griffith et al., 2004).

397. Sward at the vegetational frontier- Two "photoquadrants" of mixed prairie range vegetation introduced in the two preceding photographs. This range plant community occurred at the extreme western edge of the geographic distribution of this range type. The first of these "photo-samples" included plains bristlegrass (left foreground) and sand dropseed (right foreground) with hooded windmillgrass, Wright's threeawn, and burrograss behind. The second "photoplot" included large cespitose plants of sand dropseed (left foreground) and Wright's threeawn (right foreground) with more of these same species plus some plains bristlegrass, buffalograss, and sideoats grama in background.

Railway Ranch, Upton County, Texas. Mid-October; peak standing crop at onset of plant dormancy.FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem). Closest Kuchler units was combination of K-58 (Grama-Buffalograss) and K-76 (Mesquite-Buffalograss) and these did not cover it. No SRM. Mixed "Short-Grass" Series, 142.13, of Plains Grassland biotic community, 142.1 (Brown et al.1998, p. 40). Loamy range site. High Plains- Arid Llano Estacado, 25k (Griffith et al., 2004).

398. Mixed Prairie of New Mexico needlegrass (Stipa neomexicana) and Indian ricegrass (Oryzopsis hymenoides), latter is State Grass of New Mexico, as dominants with blue grama, sideoats grama, and wester wheatgrass as associates. Scattered Bigelow sagebrush (Artemisia bigelowii). Loamy plains range site. Purgatory Valley, Otero County, Colorado. July. FRES No. 38 (Plains Grasslands Ecosystem). K-57 (Gramagrass-Needlegrass-Wheatgrass). SRM 716 (Grama-Feathergrass).

Southwestern Tablelands- Piedmont Plains and Tablelands Ecoregion, 26e (Chapman et al., 2006).

399. Indian ricegrass- State Grass of Nevada and Utah. This cespitose grass yields palatable forage that like such shortgrass species as buffalograss, curly mesquite, and blue grama cures well “on the vine”. It is thus especially valuable as winter feed. The nutritious seeds were gathered and pounded into flour by squaws of the various tribes living in the western plains and Intermountain regions. A short and practical reference for this outstanding species is the Natural Resources Conservation Service Plant Guide (Ogle, 2006).

Otero County, Colorado, July.

400. Grain for squaw bread- Spikelets of Indian ricegrass in soft-dough stage. Show here on soil surface in the Central Great Plains was a panicle full of spikelets (florets) featuring the membraneous lemmas surrounding the caryopses of this somewhat rice-resembling member of the Stipeae (needlegrass tribe). The pronounced "hulls" around the small caryopses were thrashed by Indian women to free grain in order that they could make a "bread" (of sorts) from the grass that the white race named commeratively Indian ricegrass (Forest Service, 1940, G88). Awns are typically shed from the lemma long before the grain ripens.

Niobrara County, Wyoming. Late June.

401. Sand bluestem-little bluestem-sand sagebrush- A sand dune cover type. Clements and Weaver (1938) regarded such communities as postclimax, a tallgrass variant type in the mixed prairie region. This cover type is shown in the grassland section because it is a grassland type and is not a sand sagebrush-sand bluestem savanna. This type occurs exclusively on deep sand sites and is interspersed among blue grama-buffalograss, western wheatgrass, and other forms of mixed prairie and shortgrass plains grasslands.

Chaves County, New Mexico. June. FRES No. 39 (Prairie Ecosystem). K-63 (Sand Sagebrush-Bluestem Prairie). SRM 720 (Sand Bluestem-Little Bluestem, Dunes). Mescalero Ridge; High Plains- Shinnery Sands Ecoregion. 25j (Omernik and Griffith, 2006).

402. Sand sagebrush (Artemesia filifolia)- This is the major sagebrush species in the mixed prairie grasslands of the Southern Great Plains, both the Rolling Red Prairie (= Rolling Redlands, Redbeds) and High Plains (the Staked Plains or the Llano Estacado). In somewhat greater--though still naturally occurring-- densties or cover sand sagebrush forms a sagebrush mixed prairie savanna or sand sagebrush steppe (SRM 722). On overgrazed ranges and abandoned farmland (ie. "go-back land") sand sagebrush has become a major brush species on par with big sagebrush in the Intermountain West. At densities similar to those of pre-Columbian mixed prairie and sagebrush savanna (the best scientific estimates or "educated guesses") sand sagebrush is a highly desirable component of these ecosystems. It is not only a natural member of the biotic community filling an ecological niche, but it is valuable from such practical standpoints as providing some browse and substantial cover for big game species, furnishing emergency feed sources for livestock during prolongued periods of snow cover, and holding snow (ie. future soil water) that might otherwise blow off the land.

Crowley County, Colorado. July.

403. Leaders of sand sagebrush (Artemesia filifolia)- Crowley County, Colorado. July.

Reseeded Range on Mixed Prairie (examples from the Conservation Reserve Program)

Shown below were three photographs of former fields (row crops and small grains) on highly erodible land that had been successfully reseeded to mixtures of native grasses. These three examples were on the Great Plains physiographic province. The first two slides were from the High Plains (part of the central Great Plains) and the third slide was from the Colorado Piedmont. Both of these are sections or sub-provinces of the Great Plains.

**Note: students in Range Management and Forestry should familarize themselves with the concept of physiographic provinces and study the literature of the provinces in which the ranges and forests with which they work occur. The classic or "bible" for physiography of the "lower 48 states" remains Fenneman (1931, 1938). A more recent, but less detailed, treatment for North America north of Mexico is Hunt (1974). An excellent treatment of the Great Plains specifically is Trimble (1990).

Reseeding range (and replanting forests) is a form of, and a practice within, the category of conservation known as restoration. Conservation is scientific management of natural resources by shifting the rate of resource use to the future. It is a general concept and differs in application and outcome of use between renewable and nonrenewable natural resources. Restoration is that stage of conservation in which there is nonuse combined with some intensity of inputs added back to the natural resource(s) for purposes of replenishing or rebuilding the resoure(s) so that it can again sustain use. Restoration is the lowest rate of resource use in the array of conservation, the lowest stage in the range in rates or levels of resource use. Depletion or exhaustion is the final level or last rate of resource use because the natural resource is either used up, if nonrenewable resources, or exterminated (driven extinct) if a renewable resource such as a species of organism. Exhaustion is nonuse as is restoration, but exhastion is nonuse because the resource formerly received the greatest total use relative to the rates that could sustain use. Using natural resources at rates higher or greater than that (those) which can sustain use (ie. exceeding sustained yield) is the stage known as exploitation. Nonrenewable resources cannot sustain use. That is why they are nonrenewable. Depletion, the result of exploitation, does not have to be total physical or biological elimination (extinction of species most certainly is of course), but it may be economic depletion (ie. the resource becomes so scarce that it cost more to harvest or extract it than it is worth in the prevailing market).

Restoration is that level of scientific management or conservation (= wise use of resources to shift use farther into the future) that attempts to correct the abuses of exploitation which ended in the state of depletion. The goal of restoration is to "bring back", to replenish, the depleted natural resource(s) so as to be able to use them again at some point in the future. They should then be used at rates that can sustain use (at rates of use consistent with sustained yield). This is the stage in the array of natural resource use known as conservation.

Restoration in this context and strict definition should not be confused with the specific meaning of restoration as that level of reclamation of drastically altered (= drastically disturbed, radically modified, devastated, derelict) lands or ecosystems in which everything is completely returned to the pre-disturbance (prior to the severe perturbation) state. Restoration in that context refers specifically to lands (or waters) disturbed by human actions like mines, quarries, oil fields, abandoned roads, bombing ranges, chanalized rivers, land fills, chemical dumps, etc. The general idea of "land repair" or replenishing of natural resources is consistent with both of these specific uses of restoration.

Restoration is reinvestment in natural resources just as exhaustion was disinvestment in resources (ie. we ate the "seed wheat" and now we must buy more seed to be able to plant wheat if we are to have wheat to eat, and sow, in the future). Examples of natural resource restoration include closed seasons (no open hunting or fishing season) for rare and endangered species, preservation (rates of resource use less than those of conservation) of relict vegetation, and park management for irreplaceable or priceless natural wonders like unique scenery.

Restoration management or inputs in Range Management and Forestry include reseeding grasses and forbs, replanting woody plants, noxious plant control (reduction in cover, density, etc. of weeds and brush which are ecological invaders of the climax or desired plant community), soil and water conservation structures, fertilization, etc. These are known generally as improvement practices. Range improvement generally and usually means restoration of ranges depleted by overgrazing, under- or overburning, farming, commercial activities, and so forth. Improvement practices such as those just listed aid or increase the rate of range recovery by facilitating the processes of secondary succession. Man gives a boost to Mother Nature to help make amends for his past abuse of natural resources (such as mismanagement of range or forest). Improvement practices differ from developments or development practices such as road and trail construction, water development, fencing, etc. The latter are not restoration practices, but rather management and physical things that facilitate the overall effective use and improve the efficiency-- especially the economic efficiency--of use of the resources (including human, financial, and knowledge resources as well as natural resources).

Range reseeding is one of the major categories of range improvement practices (restoration management). The next three slides were chosen as examples of range reseeding that were done under the United States Department of Agriculture Conservation Reserve Program. The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) was passed in 1985 in response to the fencerow-to-fencerow grain and row crop farming during a relatively brief period during the 1970s (Dr. Earl Butz was Secretary of Agriculture in the Nixon Administration) when the Soviet Union was buying feedstuffs from the USA to build up its livestock and poultry feeding industries. It appeared that the USSR would be buying feed grains and oil seeds from the United States for the proverbial "foreseeable future". US farmers took a page from the past (or actually failed to read past history correctly) and plowed out fragile grasslands that had been marginal for field crop production under all but the economies of World Wars I and II. The almost immediate result over much of the Great Plains was dust storms that at local community levels were almost on par with those of the 1930s (thought not nearly as widespread as during the infamous Dust Bowl years). There were similar problems with water-caused soil erosion over much of the Midwest. There was concurrent draining of wetlands that were also marginal (sub-marginal actually) for cropland other than in the seemingly good times or happy days of unimaginable market demand for many field crop commodities such as wheat, oil seeds, and feed grains (most notably corn).

As immediate as the farmers fencerow-to-fencerow response was the "hue and cry" from a broad spectrum of concerned citizens that spanned the political spectrum of both major US political parties and from conservatives to welfare liberals. Only some of the most diehard free market libertarians (and those who stood to gain from grain deals) failed to see the classic market failure or negative externality (adverse spillover effects) of this short-term response to what was destined to be a short-lived boom market. Of course many elected and appointed politicians from Farm Belt States elected to keep silent as long as they could (at least up to time of re-election), but there was clearly a groundswell grassroots movement to halt the farming of highly erosion-prone land. All this was to the technically correct war cry of "Dust Bowl".

Meanwhile the Soviet dictators sensed the weakened power of the US Presidency in the post-Viet Nam, post-Watergate era and the naivette of President Jimmy Carter. Thereupon the USSR invaded neighboring Afghanistan fairly early in the Carter Administration. President Jimmy's dumbstruck response was an ill-fated and totally ineffective embargo (ban on shipping and/or selling) of American-grown grains to the big bad Russian bear. Like the market-sensitive and ever-optomistic farmers, President Carter failed to correctly interpret history. An executive-ordered embargo (a presidential-invoked prohibition of trade in commodities and/or in departure or entry of commercial ships at US ports) on overseas shipping of commodities that an elected official arbitrarily deems "contraband" will always fail without a naval blockade. The grain US farmers could not sell to the Soviets was sold and shipped by American allies like Canada, Australia, and Argentina. The Carter Administrtion did not have the force of international law (the legal standing), political clot, or the "guts" to blow out of the water Canadian, Australian, and Argentine ships loaded with the kinds of feedstuffs American growers could not sell. The only losers in this fiasco were American farmers, and the reputation of the United States of American as a reliable source or supplier of agricultural products.

The Carter boondoogle over the sales ban on American grain exposed the fencerow-to-fencerow farming and "breaking out" of highly erodable land for what it was: a pact with the Devil in which the US sold its conservation soul and still never had the stones turned into promished bread. This "sad state of affairs" was coupled with that of the now over-extended farmers who had been loaned vast credit for expansion (purchase of more land at inflated prices and expensive farming equipment) based on the inflated value of their farmland (built on the anticipation of increased sales of grain, oil seeds, etc.). By the time Ronald Reagan was elected President the stage was set for the worst farm crisis since the Great Depression. Agri-businesses, banks, and many local retailers in farming communities faced dire financial times. Many went broke. Some farmers committed suicide.

The stage was set for Federal action. Congress acted (in its own due time) with passage of the Food Security Act of 1985. Title XII of this legislation established the Conservation Reserve Program. The CRP would pay farmers to 1) idle or "retire" highly erodable land and 2) seed these acres back to permanent vegetation like native or introduced perennial grasses or, in some cases, trees. The 1985 CRP provision became known as the "sod-buster bill". Farmers made bids for their land to go into CRP and if their bids were accepted they could enter into a contract with Uncle Sam to keep their erosion-prone land in species that were approved by the USDA (Soil Conservation Service) officials. The maximum period of this "lease to Uncle Sam" (retirement of highly erodible land from field crop production) was 10 years. "Then what?" remains the over-riding question. The 1990 farm bill expanded the CRP concept to wetlands, the so-called "swamp-buster bill".

Administration of CRP was largely at the county level and the total amound of land retired under the Conservation Reserve Program was limited to 25% of the cropland in any given county unless it was shown by standards of the program that there would be no adverse economic impacts on the local economy in which case withdrawl for CRP leases was limited to 30% of the cropland in the county. The CRP was reduced somewhat by the 1996 farm bill, and the question of permanence of retirement of highly erodible land remained unresolved.

Conservation Reserve was an older term going back at least to the USDA Soil Bank program initiated in 1956. In all such cases, the stated reason for retiring highly erodible land was soil conservation. Another (and, probably, the major) reason was to reduce crop surpluses and, thereby, crop support payments. Idlying acres was of more immediate concern as a way to reduce costs to US taxpayers, and use tax dollars where congressmen got more votes for their allocations, than as a way to conserve soil and water. This major--though understated--objective was not totally effective because highly erodible land is by its nature marginal land for field crop production and often, after idlying their marginal fields, producers managed the remaining land more intensively and "made up the difference".

The CRP was very effective in getting land back into permanent perennial vegetation (much of this as range or as introduced species that would persist as if they were native). These CRP lands demonstrated two basic lessons: 1) range managers, agronomists, foresters, etc. have developed the technology to revegetate abandoned farmland and 2) land (and water)-owners will respond to economic incentives and adopt conservation practices if "the price is right". It was certainly to their credit that most farmers supported CRP (afterall they were being paid as much, if not more, than these marginal lands would return as farm fields).

The Conservation Reserve Program was and remains (probably always will remain) controversial. It was just stated that the CRP was, beyond any doubt, an incentive to farmers to idle highly erodible land and replant that land to permanent vegetation that protects it against the ravages of soil erosion.

The CRP (and earlier programs like the Soil Band) was also, however, a clear incentive to farmers to plow out these highly erodible lands in the first place. Farmers could reasonably bet from past history that eventually the US government (and possible some state governments as well) would pay them to put these highly erosion-susceptable acres back into "grass", land which was marginal for crop production and which should never have plowed under (or drained) to begin with. Meanwhile what about the faithful stewards of the land? What reward, what incentive, was returned to those landowners who cherished their "grass" (native vegetation, or reseeded ranges and permanent agronomic pastures some of which had been established in the first round of conservation plantings after the folly of "sod-busting" had been recognized)? They got nothing, absolutely nothing. Zero. Actually they did get something: competition for their commodities in the market place from the poor stewards who, like Essau, had despised their birthright. Wise land managers had to compete on the open market with those of their fellow producers who had plowed-out their erodible acres and got paid a bonus for such inefficient management and immoral poor stewardship! The farmer who was an unfit steward of his highly erodible land was given a reward for his failed stewardship. Worse yet, this gave him an advantage over the faithful steward who got no financial renumeration and instead had to compete with what by definition was an economically inefficient producer, the very one who did not manage his resources wisely or morally.

Such goings-on clearly constitute market failure. Where is the social justice, equity, or fairness in such a policy as this? The CRP made the playing field of the market place less level. It sloped the ground of the open market in favor of producers who "broke the rules" and thereby penalized producers who "played by the rules" and who were more economically efficient (as was self-evident by the fact that they did not require a "bail-out" via conservation payments).

The CRP was a "success story" to those whose main, or only, concern was stopping soil erosion (and providing other conservation benefits like wildlife habitat, clean air, less mining of ground water for irrigation) or who viewed CRP as a bargain because federal renting or leasing of CRP land was less expensive to the taxpayer than continuing to pay price supports. Certainly all "real rangemen" would agree that any reason (or excuse) to put non-arable land--maybe any land for that matter--back into range and negate sod-busting was acceptable to that end. It cannot be denied though that programs like Soil Bank and CRP amounted to subsidies to the economically inefficient producer (and unfaithful steward) while offering unfair competition for the more efficient manager and faithful steward of natural resources.

Finally the big question remains: How long will these landowners who tried to farm sub-marginal land--and were paid a subsidy to do so--keep the land in the CRP. Is there anything to prevent a repeat performance of pay and plow out, pay and plow out, ad infinitum? How can taxpayers be assured that their reinvestment in natural resources--resources for which which they have no property rights--will be a rational investment and not some environmental Enron? What reasonable expectation can those who pay the way for conservation be reasonable assured that programs like the CRP are in final analysis "wise use" of their resources?

In the author's opinion the Conservation Reserve Program was beneficial overall. Net results of conserving land and related natural resources was worth the cost, but it was marginal. The program had more right than wrong with it, but it is unfair and, ultimately, it will be a flawed and failed approach. There has to be a better way. Maybe some young reader will come up with it.

The Society for Range Managemeant passed a policy statement and a resolution regarding the Conservation Reserve Program which read in part: "...the Society advocates that productive, sustainable, economically and ecologically sound management systems be developed and applied on all CRP lands. This should be accomplished by keeping highly erodible lands in permanent vegetative cover" (The Trail Boss News, October 2001).

404. Reseeded mixed prairie- Abandoned cropland reseeded to native tallgrass and midgrass (and, perhaps, even shortgrass) species under the federal Conservation Reserve Program. To conform to conservation compliance within terms of the USDA price support system the owner-operator of this farmland entered into a contract with the United States whereby these highly erodable acres were taken out of row crop and small grains production and restored to a grassland community closely resembling the pre-Columiban or climax mixed prairie grassland. This three-year-old seeding in the beauty of it's fall foliage included plants of the following native grasses (not in any general order of species composition): little bluestem, sand bluestem, sand lovegrass, Indiangrass, and sideoats grama.

FRES No. 38 (Plains Grasslands Ecosystem), K-60 (Wheatgrass-Bluestem-Needlegrass ) and edge of K-62 (Bluestem-Grama Prairie) were potential natural vegetation mapping units, but this was reseeded was more of K-67 (Nebraska Sandhills Prairie) or a "duke's mixture" of these adjoining Kuchler units. SRM and range site designations were even less precise (hence, relevant) than larger-scale units of vegetation. This was in the Loess Hills and Dissected Plains area of southwestern Nebraska. Weaver and Alberston (1956, ps. 193-197) provided an apt description of the native grassland vegetation. Hays County, Nebraska. October (autumnal aspect).

405. Reseeded mixed prairie- Former cropland on highly erodable acres was reseeded under a Conservation Reserve Program contract to a "real mixture" of native grass species which resulted in grassland restoration to the point of a reconstructed mixed prairie. The dominant species in this mixture as it appeared at time of photograph was sideoats grama. Other grass species found in the reseeded prairie (and presumedly included in the seeding mixture) included plains lovegrass, sand bluestem, and blue grama. Both white and yellow sweet clover were common, but were probably volunteer species. (Melilots [from Melilotus spp.] were common in disturbed areas such as all along highway rights-of-way in this area and they have naturalized over much of the central part of North America, especially the Great Plains.)

The author recalled vividly driving in a blinding dust storm across this exact location in March 1975, 23 years before he took this photograph. Wind-eroded soil had blown half-way across one lane of the paved highway over lengthy stretches so that motorists were restricted to a single lane. This was of no consequence for travel across this sparsely populated remote area, but the damage to the land and the lives of local people was monumental. Wind-erosion in this southwestern corner of Colorado and adjoining parts of Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Kansas was one of the most serious problems and major areas of concern that led to passage of the Conservation Reserve Progaram in 1985. Current "black blizzards" and "rolling dusters" such as the one impressed indelibly on the author's mind were frequently used as examples to prove that such catastrophes and failures of stewardship were immediately pressing serious problems. Such tragedies proved that soil erosion was not just a distant part of history from the "dirty thirties" when Hugh Hammond Bennett evangelized for soil conservation or a Hollywood backdrop for the oppression portrayed in The Grapes of Wrath. It was, however, the right way to end a moralizing picture show when the author took this slide of restored mixed prairie on land that almost a quarter century earlier was blowing away.

FRES No. 38 (Plains Grassland Ecosystem), K-58 (Grama-Buffalo Grass), SRM would vary locally among 704, 706,and 715, the latter being the regional climax as mapped by Kuchler. Baca County, Colorado. July.

406. Former irrigated cropland reseeded back to native mixed prairie- The city of Aurora, Colorado was facing dire water shortages as it experienced rapid growth. Aurora did not have water rights sufficient to sustain it's unsatiable appetite for water. Aurora had to purchase water in the form of water rights in order to survive (at least at the standard of living to which it was accustomed). Aurora had no alternative but to buy the water rights of water-owners, primarily irrigation farmers. For the uninitiated and greenhorns like those from "the East" a short but instructive digression into water law was in order. NOTE: water law is a highly specialized and legally technical body of jurisprudence. In fact it is one of the most technical with many nuances and intricacies. The following thumbnail sketch was offered as an introduction to water law as it pertains to use and ownership of water in agricultural production. This brief description was drawn from the authors nonlegal background and as adopted from general texts especially Barlowe (1986, ps. 344-351).

There are two fundamental legal doctrines of water rights in the United States. The older one which traces back long before English law is the riparian doctrine. Common-law riparian doctrine says in effect that all landowners whose land has or borders on a stream or natural body of water has a property right to a flow of water undiminished in quantity and quality except as may be diminished or changed by upper stream riparian owners solely for domestic purposes and for the watering of livestock. This form of water rights generally holds in all states of the Union except for all or parts of the seventeen western states (often termed the "western range states"). The other basic doctrine of water rights--in total or in some modified form--in all or parts of the seventeen western (the plains, mountains, and Pacific) states is the appropriation (= prior-appropriateion) doctrine, also often known as the Colorado Doctrine after the state that first prescribed it in its state constitution upon admission to the Union.

The prior-appropriateion doctrine asserts that both landowners with riparian water and landowners without riparian water on their property are free to appropriate by legal process water from streams (and acquifiers) for its beneficial use (not restricted to domestic or household and livestock uses). In net effect, this grants freedom under law to divert water that is not on one's own land to one's land for beneficial use. The diverted water then becomes legal property the same as for land, assuming legal procedure was followed in acquiring the property right in water. This separates land ownership from water ownership. The property owner who "got there first" and legally laid claim to water not on his own land became the legal owner of the water that might well be on land later legally owned (claimed, bought, inherited, etc.) by another. In such case the landowner who adquired the property rights to the land after the water rights were already established does not legally own the water that is on his legally owned land, at least not that part of the water claimed by the waterowner who legally acquired the right to that water by prior beneficial use. Water rights and land rights are completely separate just as in the case where mineral rights on a parcel of land are separate from the rights accruing to land ownership (ie. a land buyer may or may not get water rights or mineral rights). With prior appropriation, water (water rights) can be sold as a real estate commodity the same as land. Obviously in arid and even semiarid regions the water rights become all powerful in determining the value of land (ie. what the land is really worth for certain purposes, what the true worth of land ownership is, of what value land rights are). This applies at the level of states as when Kansas and Colorado "go to war over water rights" all the way to the US Supreme Court. It even holds force in water law among nations entering into international treaties or contracts (eg. between the United States and the Republic of Mexico regarding water in rivers like the Colorado and the Rio Grande).

Technically the so-called "plains states" (the tier of states from Texas through North Dakota) legally apply a modified form of the appropriation (prior appropriation in conjuction with parts of the riparian doctrine). As California was the first state to adopt this modified riparian doctrine it is often known as the California Doctrine.

The reseeded grassland shown here was a field formerly under irrigation for prodution of various crops like the famous Rocky Ford cantaloupe (Cucumis melo var. cantalupensis), onion (Allium cepa), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), and sugar beets (Beta vularis). The waterowner also owned the land, but after he he sold his water rights (a commodity in states enforcing the appropriation and modified version of appropriation doctrine) the land became useless for the field crops best adapted to the climate, soils, markets, etc. of this area. The owner who now owns only the land (the landowner who sold his property in water, the water rights) concluded that dry land agriculture was not an option for him. Thereupon he enrolled his land in the Conservation Reserve Program. (What pressure, if any, from municipalities, government agencies, family members, neighbors, etc. may have dissuaded the landowner from continuing to farm this field was unknown to the author.) The lesson was that without irrigation water this former cropland was deemed no longer arable and put back in range. HURRAY! This was an example of how sociopoliticoeconomic factors help determine the use made of land (and water). Like the Conservation Reserve Program, this private example was an illustration of how social-cultural factors can override physical-chemical and biological factors in dictating both personal decisions and public policy regarding land and water use.

The reseeding mixture included alkali sacaton, sideoats grama, blue grama, switchgrass, and western wheatgrass, all of which were well-represented in the grassland community shown here. In addition there was an abundance of volunteer sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus), probably the most common grass in this part of the Great Plains.

FRES No. (Plains Grassland Ecosystem), K-58 (Grama-Buffalo Grass), SRM variant of 725. Reseeded to a locally adapted mixture resembling a mixed prairie of tall-, mid-, and shortgrass species. Crowley County, Colorado. July.

407. Emergency grazing of CRP land- During the extreme drought of 2002 landowners were allowed to graze land enrolled in the Conservation Reserve Program. It is in drought, the great risk in ranching, that the real value of forage produced under this program becomes most evident. It also proves the value of always managing so as to have some reserve source of feed. The alternatives of bankruptcy and liquidation are less appealing. No, this herbage with large amounts of rank, leached dry matter from several previous growing seasons, is far from quality feed, but it beats "holler belly" and dust.

Lincoln County, Colorado. June.

408. Clean farming= sad, sick scene- "Clean farming" is the term applied to tillage of farmland with little or, at least, inadequate crop residue on the soil surface resulting in soil erosion. Accelerated soil loss is particularily likly on highly erodible land. An example of this state of improper farming was shown here as it occured on cropland in the Central High Plains of northeastern Colorado. Excessive runoff (overland flow) from this clean-tilled field carried irreplacable (in human time frame) soil through a "tin horn (corrugated steel culvert) to the other side of the highway where the sediment was deposited on mixed prairie to depths that covered and killed native grasses. This was an early stage of gully formation. On the upslope land behind the gully channel there was both rill and sheet erosion which are two other forms of water-caused soil erosion. Undoubtedly there was also wind erosion on this field, but this form of accelerated soil erosion was not obvious in this or succeeding photographs of this field.

This accelerated soil loss was water erosion, meaning tht moving water was the primary agent of soil dislocation and removal. Wind erosion usually causes considerably greater solil erosion is the Great Plains Region, but this particular field had been particularily hardhit by water erosion. Tumble weeds in the erosion channel were both Russian thistle and kochia.

Washington County, Colorado. (And George Washington, "Father of American Agriculture" and first US president, would not be pleased or amused.) June.

409. Contrast in cover- Two more views of the cropland introduced in the preceding photograph showing conditions of water erosion on the unprotected bare soil which was the outcome of clean-farming (tillage so complete that inadequate crop residue remained to protect soil from the ravishes of wind and, most noticably in this instance, moving water.

In the foreground was native sod of mixed prairie which provided an in-effect complete cover of herbaceous vegetation that prevented soil loss. This vivid short set of slides furnished a contrast in stewardship and wise use consevation, a sharp dochotomy between land undergoing soil erosion due to improper farming practice and land protected by Mother Nature's own living blanket. Major grass species of the remnant mixed prairie included western wheatgrass, the dominant, along with blue grama, sideoats grama, sand bluestem, sand dropseed, needle-and-thread, cheatgrass, and smooth brome. The latter two were, respectively, a naturalized weedy annual and a naturalized agronomic species which can also be weedy.

Washington County, Colorado. June.

410. Healed by man's helping hand through the Conservation Reserve Program- Grassland restoration on highly erodible cropland in the Central High Plains. The most common grass in the draw (and a gully prior to reshaping and seeding) was western wheatgrass that was readily distinguished by its glaucous gray coloration. Sideoats grama was the grass of lighter green color and, overall, the most abundant grass on this restored mid-grass prairie. Blue grama had also been reseeded and was widespread. Sand dropseed and needle-and-thread were coming back in naturally. This latter development is a common occurrence on reseeded ranges.

Washington County, Colorado. June.

411. More CRP sod- A former crop field on highly erodible (and marginal) land that was reseeded back to native mixed prairie community through the Conservation Reserve Program. This land in the High Plains of northeastern Colorado was now a restored grassland of western wheatgrass, sideoats grama, blue grama, silver bluestem, sand dropseed, along with the Old World, King Ranch, or yellow bluestem (Andropogon ischaemum= Bothriochloa ischaemum) and the always-there naturalized cheatgrass. Only the first three of these species were part of the CRP seeding mixture. The native silver bluestem and sand dropseed returned "on their own" as did latter two exotic or introduced grasses which naturalized in this area. KR or yellow bluestem was introduced into this area for the reseeding of road cuts and tame pasture.

In addition to the three major native grasses of this seeding, big bluestem and little bluestem are also included (at about 10% each) in standard CRP mixes on "tightland" like that shown here. On "sandy land", Indiangrass, sand bluestem, and prairie sandreed are major native grasses recommended for CRP mixtures in this area of the High Plains.

Washington County, Colorado. June.

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Mixed Prairie - IC

Southern & Central Great Plains (including the Wyoming Basin & associated foothills grasslands)

Central Great Plains Sandhills Mixed Prairie

Ecotonal Mixed Prairie-Ponderosa Pine Forest Mosaic

Foothills Bluegrass Mixed Prairie

Grasslands of the Wyoming Basin (including shrub savanna forms)

Montane Grasslands

Dune or Sand Form of Quasi-Mixed Prairie

Shortgrass Prairie Sampler

Mixed Prairie of the Llano Estacado (Staked Plains)

Reseeded Range on Mixed Prairie (examples from the Conservation Reserve Program)

Southern & Central Great Plains
(including the Wyoming Basin & associated foothills grasslands)